-^^' 



.-N- 






%. '' ' . . s ^ ^^ ■, « <'^ ^ , ,v * _^\^ 



.0^ 









.0^ 



^. o. 















*^ ^v.'-^^/T^??^ 






0- 






^^,^/>t^ 



v"S' - 






-0?^^^^ % J 



X^^ c 



o 






%^^ 






1y^ 



•?' 



^ * ., V O ^ ,0-' 










^A V^ 



Digitized by the Internet Archive >^ \^^ 



; ^ "o^ " ' " v> , ;^.:.;j ^Jjf 201 1 with funding from 







"» \- f2 5f '. -?^ 



^. c<^ 



A " ^r. aV' 



■<!%»: 



^v^.^ '^It^/wwwvarchivei^rg/d^ ^^^' ' 



, s ,0 



.f-Js 



.^' c " '^ '' « ■'© 



^> .-^^ 



.^' 



.^^■" 



^^.% 



■x^ 




a' 






% 






-^' 












,0- s 



DEFICIENCIES IN 
READING ABILITY 

THEIR DIAGNOSIS 
AND REMEDIES 

/ 

BY S/-f-^, 

CLARENCE TRUMAN GRAY, A.M., Ph.D. 



ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
AND DIRECTOR BUREAU OF STANDARDS AND MEASURE- 
MENTS, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 



D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 



) 



cp-.ol 



-^^ 



<,^ 






.*^^ , ^ 



.*^ . 



Copyright, 1922, 

By D. C. Heath & Co. 

2E2 



M 24 (922 



©CI.A677273 



TO 
MY FATHER AND MOTHER 

WHOSE BELIEF IN EDUCATION 
HAS MADE THIS VOLUME POSSIBLE 



PREFACE 

This volume has been prepared for use in special methods 
courses and in reading circle work. With these ends in view 
the author has made the subject matter as simple as seemed 
consistent with the nature of the problems treated. The inten- 
tion has been to consider only material which is recognized as 
scientific and to discuss only those theories which are supported 
by facts. 

The chief problem has been to present the subject matter 
so that it will aid the work of the teacher. The usual effort in 
this direction shows itself in contribut ons to general methods. 
The plan of procedure at this time involves individual methods. 
The attempt is made to give teachers a concrete and practical 
plan by means of which they can develop scientific methods to 
meet individual cases. 

This book is the result of twelve years' interest in the problem. 
As a superintendent of schools at Spencer, Indiana, I had my 
attention directed to the problems of reading through the 
enthusiastic work of two pr mary teachers. Miss Jesse Mead 
and Miss Bertha Maegerlein. My first scientific contact with 
the problem was in a course given at the University of Chicago 
by Professor W. F. Dearborn. Later, through a grant from 
the General Education Board, I had the opportunity of doing 
a year's research work in the same University under the guidance 
of the Director of the School of Education, Dr. C. H. Judd. I 
owe much also to the Department of Education at the University 
of Texas. The interest of this department in work of this type 
has shown itself in the equipment of a laboratory in which I 
have been able to do considerable work on some of the problems 
discussed. 



vi PREFACE 

The reading teachers of the pubHc schools of Austin, under 
the general direction of their Superintendent, A. N. McCallum, 
have cooperated heartily in testing out in a practical way some 
of the plans suggested for diagnosis and remedy. 

I am also very much indebted to those investigators whose 
work has been quoted and to those authors who have allowed 
me to use their tests in the plan suggested for diagnosis. 

Finally, I owe much to my colleague. Dr. B. F. Pittenger, 
and to Principal S. M. Lloyd of Dallas, for very careful and 
painstaking aid in putting the manuscript into final form. 

C. T. G. 

Austin, Texas, 
May I, ig22 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PACK 

I. Introductory i 

PART I — THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABIIJTY 

A. The Analysis of Reading Ability from the 

Standpoint of Reading Tests and their 
Results 
II. A Critique and Survey of Reading Tests 21 

III. A Survey of Some of the Results of Reading 

Tests: Diagnosis Based upon Reading 
Tests, and their Results 57 

B. The Analysis of Readitig Ability from the 

Standpoint of Visual Perception 

IV. Quantitative Phases of Perception . . 80 
V. Qualitative Phases of Perception . . . 112 

VI. Methods of Perceiving Words: Diagnosis 

Based upon Perception 126 

C The Analysis of Reading Ability from the 
Standpoint of the Motor Processes Involved 
VII. The Organs of Speech and their Coordi- 
nations 140 

VIII. The Rate of Vocalization 151 

IX. Vocalization during Silent Reading . . 156 
X. . Breathing in Relation to Oral Reading . 166 
XL Eye-movements and Extraneous Movements 
IN THEIR Relation to Reading Ability: 
Diagnosis Based upon a Study of the 
Motor Elements in the Reading Process 173 
vii 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

D. The Analysis of Reading Ability from the 
Standpoint of Certain Higher Mental 
A ctivities 
XII. Association as Required in the Reading 

Act 207 

XIII. Imagery and Apperception as Involved in 

THE Reading Process 225 

XIV. Attention, Reasoning, and Comprehension 

IN THEIR Relation to Reading Ability: 
Diagnosis from the Standpoint of the 
Higher Mental Activities 235 

E. General Summary 

XV. Relations Existing Among the Various 
Factors which Enter into the Reading 
Process 246 

PART II — A COMPILATION OF TESTS AND METHODS 
OF OBSERVATION FOR DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES 

XVI. Silent and Oral Reading Tests .... 269 

XVII. Perception Tests 307 

XVIII. Tests and Observations in the Motor 

Processes 314 

XIX. Directions for Scoring 329 

XX. Methods of Recording and Interpreting 

Results 341 

PART III — REMEDIAL MEASURES 

XXI. The Literature of Remedial Measures . S^^, 
XXII. Variations in Methods to Meet the Needs ^^ -^ 
Revealed by Diagnosis 381 

Appendix 413 



LIST OF TABLES 

NO. PAGE 

I. Showing Summary of Reading Tests . . 50-51 
II. Showing Correlations Existing between the 
Results of Various Reading Tests — By 
Richardson and Davidson ...... 54 

III. Showing Correlations between the Results from 

the Thorndike and Starch Reading Tests — 

By Breed 56 

IV. Showing Relative Frequency of Various Types 

of Errors in Oral Reading — By McLeod . 58 
V. Showing Standards for Thorndike's Visual 

Vocabulary Tests — By Haggerty ... 62 
VI. Showing Median Scores for Kelly Silent Reading 

Tests — By Kelly 66 

VII. Showing Increase of Perceptual Span through 

the Various School Grades go 

VIII. Showing Average Voice-eye Span for Successive 

School Grades 95 

IX. Showing Relation between Span of Perception 

and Rate of Reading 96 

X. Showing Range of Recognition in Silent Reading 

for Adults 98 

XL Showing Amount Read Correctly in Millimeters 

for Successive Short Exposures — By Hamilton 100 
XII. Showing Amount in Millimeters, of Words 
Arranged in Sentences; Miscellaneous Phrases, 
Miscellaneous Words, Read at a Single 
Exposure of .021 Second — By Hamilton . 103 



X LIST OF TABLES 

NO. PAGE 

XIII. Showing Correlation between the Perceptual 

Span, and Speed and Comprehension in 
Reading — By Starch io6 

XIV. Showing Various Elements of Consonant Sounds 148 
XV. Showing Counting Rate according to School 

Grade 152 

XVI. Showing Pronouncing Rate according to School 

Grade 152 

XVII. Showing Reaction Time for Various Words — 

By Cattell 154 

XVIII. Showing Amount of Vocalization in Silent Read- 
ing through Successive School Grades . . -159 

XIX. Showing Data Concerning Eye-movement Rec- 
ords in Silent Reading 185 

XX. Showing Data Concerning Eye-movement Rec- 
ords in Oral Reading 188 

XXI. Showing Improvement in Eye-movement Rec- 
ords after Speed Drills 353 

XXII. Record of Fifth Grade Girl in Various Phases 

of Reading 357 

XXIII. Record of a Subject before and after Practice in 

Speed Reading 369 

XXIV. Record of two Subjects before and after Practice 

in Quick Perception 370 

XXV. Record of a Subject before and after Practice in 

the Decrease of Vocalization 371 

XXVI. Showing One Type of Calculation by Means of 

Which the Arithmetic Mean may be Found 416 
XXVII. Showing One Type of Calculation by Means of 

Which the Mean Variation may be Found 417 



LIST OF DIAGRAMS 

NO. PAGE 

I. Courtis' Diagnostic Chart 13 

II. Gray's Diagnostic Chart 14 

III. Distribution of Omissions through Various School 

Grades 59 

IV. Distribution of Mispronunciations through Vari- 

ous School Grades 59 

V. Surface of Frequency Representing the Distribu- 
tion of Ability in Comprehension — By Brown . 65 
VI. Understanding of Sentences — Showing Overlapping 

in Grades 4, 6, and 8 in one City — ^By Haggerty 67 
VII Showing Average Scores in Oral Reading for Girls 

and Boys in each of the Eight Grades ^ By Gray 69 
VIII. Percentage of 1831 Cleveland Pupils found in 
each of Nine Groups in Speed and Quality of 

Silent Reading — By Gray 71 

IX. Showing Relation between Span of Perception and 

Rate of Reading 104 

X. Showing Relation between Voice-eye Span (Begin- 
ning of Line) and Rate of Reading . ... 105 
XI. Showing the Meaning of the Term Median . . 414 
XII. Showing Methods by which the Median Score may 
be Obtained for the Monroe Silent Reading 
Test 415 

XIII. Showing Correlation between Reading Rate and 

Comprehension in Reading 418 

XIV. Showing Normal Distribution Curve .... 419 



LIST OF FIGURES 



PAGE 



1. Showing one Form of the Tachistoscope .... 84 

2. Showing Form of Apparatus used in Determining 

the Voice-eye Span . 94 

3. Showing Different Arrangements of Material for Short 

Exposure Experiment 102 

4. Showing the Various Organs of Speech . ... 146 

5. Showing Different Forms of Breathing Curves . . 168 

6. Showing Method of Observing Eye-movements . . 176 

7. Showing Apparatus by which the Light used in Photo- 

graphing Eye-movements is Obtained . . . . 180 

8. Showing the Camera used in Photographing Eye- 

movements 181 

9. Showing the Headrest used in Photographing Eye- 

movements 182 

10. Showing Relations of the Various Parts of the Appara- 

tus used in Photographing Eye-movements . . 183 

11. Showing Photographic Record of Eye-movements . 184 

1 2 . Showing Location of Eye-movement Pauses for a Good 

Reader of the Sixth Grade 189 

13. Showing Location of Eye-movement Pauses for a Poor 

Reader of the Sixth Grade 191 

14. Showing Period of Confusion 194 

15. Showing Location of the Eye-movement Pauses in 

Oral Reading 195 

16. Showing Effect of a Wide Span of Perception upon 

Interpretation 196 

17. Showing Probable Overlapping of the Fields of Percep- 

tion during Reading 197 

xiii 



XIV • LIST OF FIGURES 

NO. 

1 8. Showing in a Diagrammatic Manner the Relations of 

the Various Centers Involved in the Nervous 
Control of Speech — By Collins 

19. Showing Zone of Language — By Collins 

20. Showing Working Drawings for One Form of Short 

Exposure Apparatus 



209 
211 

309 



DEFICIENCIES IN READING 

ABILITY: THEIR DIAGNOSIS 

AND REMEDIES 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY 

Reading is often said to be the most important subject in the 
elementary school curriculum. The high rank which this study 
holds is accorded it for various reasons. Chief among these 
is the fact that it makes possible a method of learning by which 
the pupil may teach himself. Methods of learning which do 
not involve reading may be considered as depending upon 
observation, oral instruction, participation, and other well- 
known processes. The young savage learns to construct his 
bow either by watching his fellows make theirs or by being told 
how such a thing is done. Under certain circumstances, such 
methods of learning have distinct advantages; and in many 
instances desirable results may be attained by them. In other 
cases, however, modern civilization has found that reading is a 
highly efficient method of learning, with distinct advantages. 
As a result, there are many occasions when this form of learning 
either supplements other methods or entirely replaces them. 

Learning based upon reading involves the interpretation of 
the printed page. This is fundamentally different from a 
method based upon observation or word of mouth. The inter- 
pretation required by reading is an indirect process, while 
interpretation as involved in those methods of learning con- 
sidered above is much more direct in its procedure. In other 
words, the reading act requires the interpretation of printed 
symbols which may be thought of as an indirect contact with 

1 



2 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

the ideas set down on the printed page. This interpretation is 
distinct from the actual experience of the one who records the 
symbols and requires certain higher forms of mental activity 
not involved in the direct methods. 

The difference between the direct and indirect method of 
learning is well illustrated in the case of the illiterate individual. 
Such a person has not acquired the indirect method of dealing 
with the experiences of his race. In many cases, he has been 
able to learn much by the direct methods; but lacking ability in 
the indirect methods, he cannot enjoy the benefits derived from 
contact with science, literature, and philosophy, and is even 
unable to keep up with current events of his own day. The 
illiterate himself is not the only loser. Since contact with these 
various types of material is essential to good citizenship, the 
welfare of society demands that every citizen be able to make 
use of the indirect methods of interpretation. This demand 
on the part of society has become so strong that the term 
" illiterate " is regarded as a mark of reproach. 

Reading is also important in the school because it cannot be 
learned without teaching. One may learn certain things by 
watching others, but one can never learn to read in this way. 
The printed characters which must be interpreted in the reading 
process are highly symbolical and conventional. They do not 
bear any direct relation to the meaning involved and do not 
come within the range of ordinary experience. It is also true 
that the experiences of the reader are not apparent to an ob- 
server of the reading process. In other words, the vital activity 
of reading is a thing which must be explained. This is well 
illustrated by the amazement of the savages who watched one 
of our great explorers read a book. These unsophisticated 
people saw him reading hour after hour and could not under- 
stand why he could be so much interested in a dead and inert 
thing such as the book appeared to be. The only way in which 
this mysterious process could have been revealed to them would 
have been by instruction. Such instruction would necessarily 



INTRODUCTORY 3 

have called attention to the nature of the symbols and to 
their meaning. 

Not only in the case of the savage is instruction necessary, 
but also in the case of any one who is ignorant of the reading 
process. Such instruction is not necessarily technical. It may 
be received by the novice from one who is untutored and un- 
learned. Indeed, such instruction may be given without a 
text-book and without a knowledge of methods;, yet the value 
of reading is so great as to demand that instruction in it be 
systematic and organized in order that the reading habits of the 
child may be placed upon a thoroughly efficient basis. 

The importance of the reading act is also emphasized by the 
fact that little or no progress can be made in any school work 
until reading is mastered. Because of the emphasis placed upon 
reading in the American schools, they are often spoken of as 
reading schools. This is true not only for the reason that the 
American pupil is expected to read a great deal, but also because 
the early instruction of the pupil centers about reading. More- 
over, teachers of the various subjects often report that pupils 
fail because they cannot read. These points serve to emphasize, 
again, the fact that instruction in reading, in the American 
schools especially, should be highly efficient. 

The preceding paragraphs have set forth the importance of 
reading as it relates to education, and yet it must be remem- 
bered that reading in itself is not educative. In regard to this 
point, Parker (ii) ^ says: 

Reading in itself has no educative value; it does not give rise to a succession 
of educative acts any more than does seeing, hearing, or touching. The 
value of reading in education depends entirely upon the educative subject 
presented, and upon the intensity of the conscious acts. — The educative 
value of reading, then, depends (i) upon what is read, (2) upon how it is read. 

That reading is considered of first importance among school 
subjects is further shown by the amount of research which has 

1 Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of the chapter. 
Other bibliographies will be found at the close of each lettered division of the book. 



4 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

been carried on for the purpose of understanding more clearly 
the reading process and perfecting the methods by which it is 
taught. These investigations have been made from different 
points of view. The first type of procedure used in attacking 
the problems of reading may be designated as the empirical 
method. This plan has been used by teachers of reading. 
The aim has been to find methods which would give children 
the power to read with a minimum of effort, and so save the 
time of both pupil and teacher. In many instances, these 
methods have centered about certain school systems or certain 
teachers, and information concerning these methods has been 
available for the most part by means of visitation or by con- 
ferring with those who have seen such methods in use. 

The development of these methods is often accomplished by 
a progressive, well-trained teacher. She begins the use of a 
certain method of teaching reading and becomes expert in it. 
After using it for a time, she makes changes in it. She comes 
to appreciate its weaknesses and its strong points. She avails 
herself of suggestions from her supervisor and superintendent, 
and after a time, it is rumored that there is a teacher in the 

school system who is having remarkable success with 

reading. She proceeds further by printing supplementary 
exercises, and finally, she has sufiicient material for a text or 
texts in reading. Often these books are printed with a view 
of setting forth a definite method of teaching reading. 

Certain objections which are sometimes made to the em- 
pirical method of attacking the problems of reading may be 
considered. A new method is often criticized because the con- 
tribution which it makes is not apparent. In such instances, 
it is probable that the new method is an adaptation of an older 
method to the personality of the one who has originated it, 
rather than a method which contains fundamental elements 
that are new. 

Another objection sometimes made to the empirical pro- 
cedure is that many methods of teaching reading are developed 



INTRODUCTORY 5 

without a careful recording of results. This makes com- 
parisons with other methods impossible. Such a criticism 
grows out of the fact that painstaking reports and records are 
considered essential to all scientific work. 

Still another criticism is that m.ethods of instruction in read- 
ing are many times developed without a careful consideration 
of the principles of psychology, sociology, and other factors 
which should serve as a basis for all reading work. Whatever 
the merit of these various criticisms, no one will deny that this 
procedure has made valuable contributions to the field of 
methods; and, without doubt, the teaching of reading has been 
very much advanced by the efforts of those who have worked 
from this point of view. 

A second method of attacking the problems of reading has 
been used by psychologists. In fact, psychologists have em- 
ployed two distinct methods, or have worked from two different 
points of view. One of these may be spoken of as the rational- 
istic point of view. In dealing with reading from this stand- 
point, an author lays down certain principles and, with them 
as a basis, attempts to evolve laws for procedure in reading. 
Dewey's (4) article on "The Primary Education Fetich" is a 
good example of this. In this article he argues the question as 
to when reading should first be taught. In order to solve the 
problem, he sets forth certain fundamentals of psychology and 
sociology, and argues from these principles that primary read- 
ing should have a place later in the curriculum than that which 
is usually accorded it. 

The chief difficulty which attaches to the rationalistic method 
of attack lies in the fact that many of the arguments produced 
are likely to be from the standpoint of the adult rather than 
from that of the child. To obviate this danger, the principles 
with which the reasoning starts need to be scrutinized very 
carefully; and even if they have been well selected, care must 
be exercised to avoid going astray in the conclusions drawn 
from them. This method has been criticized by teachers in 



6 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

service as producing results which are theoretical, but no one 
will deny that it has given rise to many important problems in 
reading, and has helped much in their solution. 

The second method of the psychologists may be spoken of as 
the objective method. In this, the psychologist stresses the 
fact that accompanying the mental operations of reading there 
are certain objective phases which throw light upon the nature 
of the reading process. These objective phases of reading are 
illustrated in such motor activities as breathing and vocal 
reactions. That these play a part in oral reading is easily 
observed; and study shows that other motor activities, as eye- 
movements and inner speech, have much to do with silent 
reading. 

The objective method differs from the rationalistic method 
in that it requires the collection of data under controlled con- 
ditions. Conclusions are reached by interpreting such data 
rather than by reasoning from general principles, as is done in 
the rationalistic procedure. One shortcoming of the objective 
method may be noted. This is that the more subjective and 
suttle phases of reading are very difficult to investigate in this 
way. This may be true at present; yet as methods become 
more and more refined, such an objection should be eliminated. 
The results obtained by the objective method have also been 
considered as too theoretical by teachers in service. However, 
it is probable that more contributions have been made to the 
psychology of reading by this method than by any other. 

The problems which have been attacked by the objective 
method are five in number, as follows: (i) The laws of visual 
perception as they relate to reading; (2) the motor processes 
involved in the act of reading; (3) certain abnormal phases of 
reading; (4) the measurement of reading ability by means of 
tests; and (5) certain higher mental activities connected with 
reading. 

Each one of these problems is exceedingly complex and will 
be treated in later chapters. Much of this material has been 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

worked out in laboratories by men not interested in the edu- 
cational aspects of their problems and who were not especially 
concerned in having their results read by those interested in the 
educational phases of their work. Moreover, scientific material 
is often set down in a style which makes it difhcult reading for 
those not trained in the methods of the scientist. As a result, 
many teachers have ignored this entire body of material. 

There is, then, an extensive literature upon the psychology 
and pedagogy of reading. This material may be divided into 
two distinct parts. One of these is the literature of empirical 
methods. This is usually thought of by teachers of reading 
as being practical in the suggestions which it makes. The 
second division may be spoken of as scientific material. This 
has often been considered by teachers of reading as impractical 
in its nature. As a result, these two fields have been per- 
iranently separated in the minds of many teachers. 

It is interesting to note that certain authors who attempt to 
write practical books for teachers of reading leave out almost 
all the scientific material upon reading. On the other hand, 
many scientific books upon reading leave the teacher to make 
her own applications. In either case, applications are unlikely 
to be made. On account of its practical nature, teachers of 
reading have the field of methods well in hand; but because 
of its reputation for being theoretical, the body of scientific 
literature has not been so helpful to teachers as it is possible 
for it to be. 

With a view of unifying in the mind of the teacher the two 
bodies of material mentioned above, the author of the present 
treatise will deal with the various problems of reading methods 
from the standpoint of scientific ' diagnosis. The meaning of 
the term " diagnosis " at this time is limited to that procedure 
which ' enables the teacher to determine the difficulties of those 
pupils who are below the standards for their grade and to 
establish variations in methods of instruction which will meet 
the needs of these pupils. 



8 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

The diagnosis of individual difficulties is not new. Teachers 
use it in much of their work. Their plan may not be systematic, 
but it includes most of the essentials of the process. Not long 
ago the writer heard a teacher in a reading recitation say to one 
pupil, "Your difficulty consists in reading too slowly;" and to 
another she said, "Your difficulty is mispronouncing small 
words;" and to a third she said, "Your difficulty is repeating 
the first word which comes after a period." Such a method is 
to be commended; and it is in the hope that it may become more 
common and more systematic that this treatise is written. 

The fundamental purpose of the teacher mentioned above 
was to make her instruction for each pupil more effective. A 
conference with her showed that she recognized two types of 
instruction. These may be designated as group teaching and 
individual teaching. In the first type of instruction she used 
the same methods and devices for all pupils, while in the second 
type she was attempting to use those methods and devices which 
would meet the needs of individual pupils. She stated, further, 
that the two types of instruction which she employed differed 
more in quantity than in quality, because she did not have 
means at hand with which to determine in any definite way the 
difficulties of the individual pupil. 

Further general illustrations of the two kinds of instruction 
may be taken from the teaching of reading. For instance, the 
word and sentence methods have been developed and perfected 
in a marked degree for group instruction; but few variations 
of these methods have been made for either backward or bright 
pupils. If such children are given the benefit of individual 
instruction, they are allowed, in most cases, to read more exten- 
sively; but the methods are varied little, if any, to meet the 
special needs of individual pupils. The difficulty lies in the fact 
that no thoroughgoing individual instruction in reading can be 
given until a careful and systematic study of the individual 
pupil's reading ability has been made. Such a diagnosis reveals 
the strong and weak points in the ability of the child, and 



INTRODUCTORY 9 

special instruction can then be made effective because the needs 
of the child are understood. 

Individual diagnosis, then, leads to the individualizing of 
methods. It becomes helpful at the point where general 
methods begin to prove ineffective. It affords individual in- 
struction based upon the needs of the individual. These needs 
are determined by a careful study of the individual. Diagnosis 
grows out of and is based upon the scientific studies of the 
reading process. In this way diagnosis utilizes the scientific 
material relating to reading as a basis for individual methods 
of instruction and thus serves to unify in the mind of the 
teacher the two divisions of the literature upon the problems 
of reading. 

Two methods for accomplishing this individual diagnosis are 
available. These are by means of educational tests and labo- 
ratory experiments. The value of tests for accomplishing this 
purpose is just beginning to be realized by all those interested 
in the problem of diagnosis. Certain tests which have been 
devised recently are termed diagnostic tests, and others are 
having their diagnostic values pointed out by those who use 
them. Some authors of tests attack the problem of diagnosis 
directly, whereas others are content to point out the value of 
diagnosis and to make very general suggestions as to methods 
of procedure. 

Still less progress has been made in using the results of the 
laboratory as a basis for diagnosis. This is due in part to the 
fact that until recently no definite relations between the results 
produced by the laboratory and reading ability had been 
established, and in part to the fact that such experiments 
as they are usually conducted are very complicated. However, 
the value of results obtained by this method for interpreting 
the data procured by tests is so great that no thoroughgoing 
diagnosis can be attempted without them. For this reason it is 
necessary that special forms of certain laboratory experiments 
which relate to reading be introduced into diagnostic procedure. 



10 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

The plan set forth in the pages to follow involves both reading 
tests and modified forms of laboratory experiments. 

The meaning of the term " diagnosis " is further limited in this 
text, in that such procedure is attempted only for certain types 
of pupils. The methods set forth here are intended to meet the 
needs of only those children who have deficiencies in reading 
ability which are remediable. Therefore, the defects of abnor- 
mal, subnormal, or mentally defective children will not be 
considered, because most, if not all, of those in these classes lack 
reading ability to such a degree that remedial measures would 
avail little. For the same reason the very backward pupil, 
the dullard or the child who is very poor in all his work, is not 
considered. Other children are truly defective so far as reading 
abihty is concerned, but they would not be ranked as mentally 
defective by any standard intelligence tests. In some instances 
these deficiencies are remediable, while in others they are not. 
It is doubtful if defects of this type can be dealt with successfully 
by teachers, and for this reason attention will be given to them 
only as they shed light upon other forms of reading difificulties. 

Still other children have deficiencies in reading ability to such 
a slight degree that the term " defective " is hardly applicable to 
their cases. They have difificulty in learning to read, but their 
difficulty is not sufi&ciently great to be thought of as the result 
of a defect. In very few instances will remedial work fail for 
those who fall in this group. Pupils of this type demand much 
of the teacher's time and energy. They are the ones for whom 
the general methods of instruction do not suffice and for whom 
individual work must be provided. Readers who fall in this 
group are of greater interest than any others in the discussions 
to follow. 

The last class of children to be mentioned in this connection 
are those whose only deficiency is that they do not measure up to 
standards. Such pupils may be the victims of poor instruction, 
or they may be unfortunate in having had little or no instruc- 
tion. Remedial work for those in this group is not difficult. 



INTRODUCTORY 11 

In conclusion, the children who are given chief consideration 
in the following pages are those whose reading ability is not up 
to standard and whose deviation from the standards is the 
result of a deficiency which is remediable. 

The Literature upon Individual Diagnosis 

One of the first attempts at individual diagnosis was made by 
Uhl (13). This investigator made a diagnosis of the reading 
ability of a group of pupils in the Oshkosh Normal Training 
School. All pupils from the third to the eighth grades, in- 
clusive, were first given the Kelly silent reading tests. The 
next day the Gray oral reading scale was given to each of the 
same group of pupils. The following defects were noted: 
(i) Too great care; (2) carelessness; (3) mispronunciation of 
small words; (4) carrying over the directions of one test to 
another; (5) reading word by word; (6) reading very loudly; 
and (7) repeating the first word of every sentence. In addition 
to the analysis just noted, a record of certain other points which 
came under the observation of the experimenter was made. 
This record included lack of intelligent interpretation, hesi- 
tancy, and gross bodily movements. 

Another author who attacks the same problem is Zirbes (14). 
By using tests and observations, this author finds that diffi- 
culties in reading result from (i) lack of proper phrasing; 
(2) lack of proper motor habits for the eyes; (3) lack of ability 
to get meaning from a passage as a whole; (4) lack of ability 
to get a particular idea; (5) lack of ability to differentiate words; 
(6) errors in oral reading, as omissions, repetitions, etc.; (7) lack 
of proper breath control; (8) lack of proper articulation; (9) and 
lack of voice control. 

Another element which entered into the diagnosis made by 
Zirbes was the rate of silent reading. The division of her class 
into groups upon the basis of this element was as follows: "A" 
readers were those whose rate was more than thirteen lines per 
minute; ''B" reaclers were those whose rate was more than nine 



12 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

lines per minute but less than thirteen; "C" readers had a 
rate between six and nine lines per minute; and those whose 
rate was less than six lines per minute were spoken of as "D" 
readers. Each of the defects mentioned above and each of 
these groups had special remedial measures applied. A dis- 
cussion of these measures will be given in a later chapter. 

Brown (2) touches upon the problem of diagnosis in these 
words: 

Pupil number one is deficient in the rate at which he can read, he gets a 
relatively large proportion of the context at his present rate of reading, but 
he reads so little in the unit of time, that his efficiency is low. [Further he 
says:] Pupil number five has a difficulty which is easy to diagnose. In the 
first place, his rate of reading is not sufficiently rapid, but his quantity of 
reproduction is high. His mark for quality, on the other hand, falls to zero. 
In other words, he gets a good many ideas in the rough, but gets nothing 
accurately. What he gets is a mere smattering of^the idea. His low mark 
for comprehension, together with his low rate of reading, gives him a low 
efficiency. 

Judd (8) has emphasized four difficulties in reading. These 
are: lack of ability to analyze words, overcare in reading, 
rapid reading which neglects details, and careless reading. 

Monroe (10), in a chapter on "Correcting Defects in Reading," 
has summarized and discussed various methods of diagnosis. 

Starch (12) has diagnosed a single case of slow assimilation. 
His methods involved both oral and silent reading tests as well 
as tests of perception, of the range of distinct vision, of vision 
and of muscular control. 

Lloyd and Gray (9) have used the diagnosis of individual 
difficulties as a method for improving the reading in an entire 
school system. Four different types of data were used as a 
basis for the diagnosis. These were results from Monroe's 
silent reading test, from Gray's oral reading test, from short 
exposure experiments, and from the observation of eye move- 
ments. The last two methods,were not used in all cases. With 
such data before them these authors diagnosed the difficulties 
of those children who, according to the Monroe test, fell below 



INTRODUCTORY 



13 



the class median. A class sheet which showed the diagnosis 
of each pupil, along with the proper remedial measures, was 
furnished each teacher. The teachers used the suggestions 
from this class sheet as a basis for their procedure in improving 
the reading ability of their pupils. 

Courtis (3) has discussed the problem of diagnosis in this 
manner : 

The child whose rate falls below the standard for his class is in need of 
special assistance. The causes of faulty reading are many, not one, and the 
remedy to be applied differs from individual to individual. Training in eye- 
movements, in ability to grasp words, and in reaction time are among the 
types of training which might be used by the progressive teacher. 

In addition to the above points, the same author has suggested 
a plan for making a diagnosis as shown in Diagram I. The 
method is based upon his reading tests and the procedure is set 
forth in a definite and concrete way. 

Diagram I — Courtis' Diagnostic Chart 



Scores 


Interpretation 


Type 


Rate of 

Reading 


Rate of 
Answering 
Questions 

High 
High 
Low 

Low 
High 

High 
Low 

Low 


Index of 
Compre- 
hension 


Probable Meaning 


I 

2 

3 

4 
5 

6 
7 

8 


High 
High 
High 

High 
Low 

Low 
Low 

Low 


High 
Low 
High 

Low 
High 

Low 
High 

Low 


Marked abiUty. 

Needs training in accuracy. 

Defect in mechanical skill offset by 
intelligent rereading until mean- 
ing is comprehended. 

Poor training or poor abihty. 

Cautious, careful reading on first 
trial. Such children usually 
make much higher scores on 
second trial. 

Marked lack of inteUigence. 

Lack of native abiUty, but good 
training. 

Lack of native abihty, or marked 
defects in training. 



14 



DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 



Gray (5) has prepared a diagnostic chart as shown in Dia- 
gram II. This chart gives data upon seven different phases of 
reading abiHty as indicated at the top of the diagram. Each 
digit at the left represents a pupil, and the broken vertical line 
represents the average score of the grade for the given phase 
of reading. 

Diagram II — Gray's Diagnostic Chart 



Compra- 
hwnnlnn 



aneatlono 



1 

& 

4- 
6- 
6- 
7 

e 
» 

10 

16- 
20 




By following a horizontal line across the chart, it is possible 
to tell the accomplishment of any pupil in any phase of reading 
ability listed. If the horizontal line cuts the zigzag line to the 
left of the vertical broken line, the pupil is below standard; 
but if the zigzag line is cut to the right of the vertical line, the 
pupil is above standard. Viewed from this standpoint, pupil 
three is evidently very weak in all elements of reading listed, 
while pupil twenty appears very capable. Such a chart put 
in the hands of a teacher after the members of her class had 
been measured by a standardized test would be of great help 
in keeping before her the needs of the various pupils. 

Gray (6) has also suggested a plan for carrying out diagnosis 
in an entire school system. In the same connection he gives 
the diagnosis of one case in which the five outstanding defects 
were as follows: (i) inappropriate motor habits in making the 



INTRODUCTORY 15 

return sweep of the eye; (2) irregular progression of attention 
from left to right; (3) failure or inability to scrutinize words in 
sufificient detail to recognize significant parts; (4) inability to 
analyze new words; and (5) inability to recognize words in 
groups or thought units. 

Anderson and Merton (i) have reported upon the diagnosis 
of six cases. The defects shown in these are as follows: (i) too 
great a knowledge of the mechanics of reading; (2) lack of 
familiarity with printed forms; (3) lack of phonetic knowledge; 
(4) lack of ability to phrase; (5) lack of background of meaning; 
(6) small span of recognition; (7) bad eye habits; (8) scanty 
visual vocabulary. 

Judd (8) and Freeman (7) have reported upon cases of word 
blindness. 

A survey of these defects shows that certain ones may be 
classified under each of the phases of reading ability already 
mentioned. A thorough understanding of such deficiencies 
requires a careful study of the scientific investigations which 
have been made of the reading process. 

In conclusion, diagnosis involves four factors. These are: 
(i) analysis of the abihty involved; (2) the measurement and 
estimation of this ability; (3) a careful recording of the results 
obtained from the process of measurement; (4) the interpre- 
tation of the results. Other processes which always follow 
closely upon diagnosis are training activities which are remedial 
in nature. In fact, without such suggestions, diagnosis loses 
its value. The only reason for making a careful diagnosis is 
that certain measures may be found for relieving conditions 
indicated by the diagnostic process. 

Without doubt, the various authors whose work has been 
reviewed have emphasized most, if not all, of the essentials in 
diagnosis; yet no comprehensive method, with careful and 
detailed instructions for carrying out such procedure, has been 
produced. It is the purpose of the present volume to present 
such a plan in order that teachers may have at hand methods 



16 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

for studying individuals. Many teachers are especially in- 
terested in such problems, but they do not have opportunities 
to develop plans for making such work systematic. If they had 
at hand methods and means for carrying out such studies, 
valuable contributions would doubtless soon be made to the 
methods of instruction in reading. 

The treatment of this problem will be divided into three 
main parts. First, the analysis of the reading process as found 
in the various scientific studies of reading will be set forth. 
Second, tests and experiments for determining various grades 
and levels of reading ability will be suggested. These will be 
accompanied by convenient methods for recording results and 
careful instructions for the interpretation of data. Third, in 
order that such diagnosis may have real value, remedial measures 
will be presented. 

Bibliography 

1. Anderson, C. J. and Merton, E., Remedial Work in Reading. Elem. 

Sch. Jl., 1920, 20, 685-701, 772-791. 

2. Brown, H. A., The Measurement of the Ability to Read. Bulletin No. i, 

New Hampshire Department of Public Instruction. Concord, New 
Hampshire, 1916. Pp. 57. 

3. Courtis, S. A., Courtis Standard Research Tests. Folder B, Series R, 

Detroit, Michigan. 

4. Dewey, John, The Primary Education Fetich. The Forum, 1898, 25, 

315-328. 

5. Gray, W. S., The Use of Tests in Impi-oving Instruction. Elem. Sch. 

JL, 1918, 19, 121-142. 

6. Gray, W. S., Diagnostic and Remedial Steps in Reading. Jl. Educ. 

Res., 1921, 4, 1-15. 

7. Freeman, F. N., Clinical Study as a Method in Experimental Education. 

Jl. Applied Psy., 1920, 4, 126-141. 

8. Judd, C. H., Reading; Its Nature and Development. Supp. Educ. 

Monog. 2, No. 4 Chicago. The University of Chicago Press, 1918. 
Pp. xiv + 192. 

9. Lloyd, S. M. and Gray, C. T., Reading in a Texas City; Diagnosis and 

Remedy. University of Texas Bulletin No. 1853. Austin, University 
of Texas, 1920. Pp. 107. 



INTRODUCTORY 17 

10. Monroe, W. S., Measuring the Results of Teaching, Chapter iii, 1919, 

Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. Pp. xviii + 297. 

11. Parker, F. W., Talks on Pedagogics, Chapter ix. New York, E. L. 

Kellogg & Co., 1894. Pp. xvi + 491- 

12. Starch, D., Educational Psychology. New York, The Macmillan Co., 

1919. Pp. ix + 473. 

13. Uhl, W. L., The Use of the Results of Reading Tests as a Basis for Plan- 

ning Remedial Work. Elem. Sch. JL, 1916, 17, 266-275. 

14. Zirbes, L., Diagnostic Measurement as a Basis for Procedure. Elem. 

Sch. JL, 1918, 18, 505-552. 



PART I 
THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



A. THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY FROM 
THE STANDPOINT OF READING TESTS AND 
THEIR RESULTS 

CHAPTER II 
A CRITIQUE AND SURVEY OF READING TESTS 

Many of the recent contributions to the psychology of read- 
ing have been made by means of standardized reading tests. It 
is the purpose of this chapter and the one which follows to study 
these tests and their results in order to determine, first, the 
points in this literature which make for a fundamental analysis 
of reading ability, and second, the diagnostic value of the tests. 

The purpose of all reading tests is the measurement of read- 
ing ability. The full significance of this statement involves 
three problems. The first of these requires that reading ability 
be defined; the second demands that the nature of the methods 
of measurement be made clear; and the third is concerned with 
the requirements of tests as agencies of measurements. A 
treatment of these problems will serve as a basis for the discus- 
sion of the existing tests which, as was suggested above, is the 
fundamental problem of the chapter. 

Reading Ability 

This term has two different meanings. It is often used in the 
sense of attainment. Reading ability as attainment is ex- 
hibited in rate of reading, in comprehension, and in other phases 
of the reading act. The various forms of attainment depend 
upon certain mental activities, such as reasoning, imagery, and 
perception. It is to these mental processes which are so in- 
timately related to attainment that the term " reading abihty " 

21 



22 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

is often applied. In many cases reading ability will mean 
attainment; in other instances it will refer to those processes 
which are fundamental to attainment. 

The Measurement or Reading Ability 

This problem has three different phases. They are: (i) the 
establishment of a unit, or units, of measure; (2) the application 
of this unit, or of these units, to the measurement of reading; 
(3) the interpretation of the results. 

The first phase has given rise to a variety of units. This is 
due in part to the complexity of the reading activity, and in 
part to divergent opinions among investigators as to the unit 
which it is best to use. A definition for a unit of reading ability 
may be quoted from Brown (2), as follows: 

One unit of reading efBciency is a reading ability in which a rate of reading 
in words per second is combined with such a power of reproduction that the 
product of the numbers, the rate and the average of the numbers representing 
the percentages of quaUty and quantity is unity. A person who can read at 
the rate of five one hundredths words per second and whose quahty of repro- 
duction is three per cent and whose quantity of reproduction is one per cent 
has one unit of reading abihty. 

Such a definition helps to make clear the meaning of the term 
"reading unit," but this particular one has been put to little 
practical use. 

The second phase is usually handled by the use of tests. 
Variety is again found in the types of test employed. This is 
probably due, not so much to divergent opinions concerning 
the nature of reading ability, as to the fact that different units 
of measurement require different methods of application. 
■ The third phase is complex in its nature, for the interpretation 
of results is not always easy. The problem of measurement is 
of such a nature that large numbers of individuals must be 
included in the final results. For this reason elaborate statis- 
tical methods must be employed. The difficulties of interpret- 
ing material treated in this way are well understood. 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 23 

In addition to the fundamental problems of measurement 
just treated, there are certain difficulties which are met in ap- 
plying any method by which reading ability is to be measured. 
Such difficulties will be discussed briefly. 

The first of these is one which is encountered in the measure- 
ment of all forms of mental activity. Mental ability cannot 
be measured in a direct manner, but must be attacked by in- 
direct methods. An indirect method measures a performance 
in which the mental activity under consideration is exhibited. 
The results of such measurements are taken as an indication of 
the presence or absence of the mental activity under considera- 
tion, and as an estimate of its amount when present. This 
means that measures of performance in reading are used as 
measures of the mental activity known as reading ability. The 
difficulty with such a method is that there are many other things 
aside from reading ability which affect performance. It may 
be affected by the physical condition of the pupil, by the time 
of day, by the temperature of the room, and by many other 
factors. If proper precautions are taken, the effect of most 
of these elements may be reduced to a minimum. In view of 
this, performance in reading is usually accepted as a measure 
of reading ability. However, it is exceedingly important in 
interpreting the results of reading tests to have in mind that 
the immediate thing measured is performance, and that this is 
taken as an index of reading ability. 

The second difficulty involved in the measurement of reading 
ability is due to the fact that the reading activity is not always 
objective. Whenever a response which lacks objectivity is to 
be dealt with, the application to it as any kind of unit is exceed- 
ingly difficult. This point is illustrated by those phases of 
reading which are emotional in nature. It is a well-known fact 
that, from the standpoint of measurement, mental activity of 
this kind has been the most difficult to deal with and that little 
progress has been made in such procedure. In some instances, 
however, certain conditions can be imposed upon these sub- 



24 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

jective phases of reading which enables them to be measured. 
The objection to this procedure is that the imposed conditions 
are foreign to the reading activity, and as a result they may 
alter the reading act. It is not difhcult to see that results 
obtained in such a way may not be representative. 

The third difficulty grows out of the fact that reading is an 
exceedingly complex process. For this reason, it is very difficult 
to devise a single test by means of which, alone, this highly 
complex process can be measured. If the reading ability of an 
individual pupil is to be investigated in its entirety, different 
tests, each of which measures a different phase of the reading 
activity, must be used. This point is illustrated by the fact 
that there are both oral and silent reading tests, and that several 
different methods have been used for measuring comprehension 
in silent reading. 

In addition to these difficulties, Judd (15) suggests two 
others. The first of these has reference to the fact that it is 
impossible to get material for a test which makes the same 
appeal to every pupil, or which has the same interest for every 
reader. Such differences may affect the results of testing to a 
considerable degree. The second difficulty mentioned by Judd, 
refers to the various levels on which the reading act may pro- 
ceed. It is well understood that reading may involve merely 
the calling of words, or it may require the interpretation of the 
most abstruse material. A few years ago the difficulties just 
enumerated seemed almost insurmountable; but much progress 
in dealing with them has been made. 

Requirements of Tests 

In order that reading tests may be valid, there are certain 
general conditions which they must satisfy. These require- 
ments are of interest at this point, because accurate analysis 
of the reading process will depend upon the accuracy of the 
results obtained by the tests used. Such criteria develop out 
of the knowledge which is at hand concerning reading ability 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 25 

and the experience which has been gained from the many- 
different types of testing. 

Mechanics of the Test, (i) The test should be printed on a 
good quahty of paper and in a kind of type which is clear and 
easily read. (2) The form of the test should be such that it 
can be handled by a child without confusion or delay. (3) Mat- 
ters are often simplified if the directions to the teacher and the 
form for compiling the results are printed on a sheet separate 
from the test. 

Ease of Scoring. If the test is to be used by teachers who 
have but little time and little training for doing such work, the 
process of scoring must be simple. The plan involved should 
give a high degree of objectivity with a minimum of difficulty 
for the teacher. 

The mathematical calculations must be simple and few in 
number. Few teachers have the time or patience to learn a 
complicated process of calculation, and no one cares to make a 
large number of calculations, even if they are simple. 

Administering the Tests. Any test, to be successful, must be 
easy to administer. The directions to both the teacher and the 
pupil should be simple and easily understood. This does not 
mean that tests which are involved in their nature have no place, 
but it is far better for such work to be done by trained persons 
under conditions where pupils may take such a test singly or in 
small groups. 

The Test Should Deal with an Essetnial Phase of Reading. All 
phases of reading which are dealt with by means of tests should 
be essential and fundamental to the work of the pupil. Any 
test which is used by teachers will have a tendency to cause 
them to emphasize in their work the particular type of reading 
which is employed in the measurement work. Hence, there is 
the danger that the emphasis in reading instruction may be 
misdirected by the tests used. 

Dependence upon Memory. The response in much of reading 
is subjective. For testing purposes, it is necessary to make 



26 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

such responses objective. Such an objective response must 
come after the subjective response and hence depends upon 
memory. It has usually been considered that a test involving 
a large degree of memory on the part of the pupil is 
not so good as one in which memory appears only slightly. It 
is doubtless true that children differ very much in the amount 
of memory which they are able to enlist in their responses in 
reading. One view of the matter would consider it a phase of 
comprehension which should be carefully measured along with 
other elements in reading ability. 

Amount of Material Read. Much of the reading done in the 
school involves large amounts of material and requires the de- 
termination of relations between the various parts of the matter 
read. The question arises as to how short the reading period, 
as required by a test, may be and yet serve as a measure of 
reading ability. Starch (31) investigated this problem and 
found that a period as short as thirty seconds might be used. 

Differences between Reading and Study. The school makes a 
careful distinction between these two types of work. Study 
usually involves several readings and more or less reflection on 
the part of the pupil. Reading is more superficial, and the 
element of reflection is not so pronounced. Brown (2) holds 
that reading and study are synonymous. It seems more con- 
sistent to think of reading as fundamental to study, and to 
think of study as being made up of several readings, or of read- 
ing plus something else. 

What Does the Test Measure? The difficulty in all mental 
testing has been to devise tests which measure a particular 
mental activity without introducing other elements. Ac- 
curate limitations of tests becomes an important problem in 
reading. It is necessary to be sure that memory, ability to 
reproduce, and other forms of mental activity are not measured 
instead of reading ability. It may be true, also, that such 
abilities are tested in addition to reading abihty. If such is the 
case, the problem of interpretation becomes difficult. On the 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 27 

other hand, it is possible that the correlation between these 
various abilities and reading ability is high, and as a result such 
factors may be neglected. 

Refinement of Tests. The science of statistics has produced 
certain methods by means of which it is possible to refine tests 
and scales. Chief among these methods as they apply to read- 
ing is the one which allows a series of reading passages to be 
arranged in order of their difhculty with equal steps of difficulty 
between each two selections. Other methods have to do with 
the scoring of results and the establishment of standards. It is 
essential that any test make the most of these refined methods. 

Dependence upon Language Ability. Children differ very 
much as to their ability to deal with new and difficult words, 
in the ease with which they become familiar with new problems 
in language, and in their ability to write fluently and accurately. 
In most tests of reading ability, the above factors are elements 
in the response, and as a result the individual endowed with 
such language ability does better in reading tests than others. 
For this reason, any test which limits the amount of language 
used in the response is usually considered superior to one which 
requires much language. However, the importance which 
uttaches to the language response both in school and daily 
affairs raises a question as to whether the type of test which 
involves considerable language response should be neglected. 
Without doubt tests with other types of response are necessary, 
as well as those which involve language. From the standpoint 
of methods it is highly necessary that the teacher have in mind 
those children who can make only the simpler forms of response 
to their reading as well as those who can make the more com- 
plex responses. 

Types of Material Used. It is possible to have as many 
different scales as there are different types of discourse. So far, 
most of the tests have employed narrative prose. 

This problem may also be viewed from the standpoint of the 
types of material used by the school. Such material may be 



28 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

described roughly as connected material and topical material. 
Selections used in reading or literature illustrate the first type, 
and many historical or geographical text-books illustrate the 
second type. In the case of the latter material, the different 
topics may be somewhat disconnected, but so related that they 
group themselves about larger topics. 

Both types of material have been used by those who have de- 
vised reading tests. One difference which exists between the 
topical material, as discussed above, and that used in certain 
tests should be noticed. The test material which has been used 
thus far presents topics which are entirely unrelated. This 
means that the reader has to adjust himself to an entirely new 
type of material each time a selection is begun. The difficulty 
of such conditions is that the mental set of the preceding selec- 
tion may be carried over into each succeeding selection and thus 
there may be a source of confusion introduced into the reading 
of each passage. 

If the connected form of material is used, one selection may 
be used by all or part of the school grades, or there may be 
different selections for each grade. In the first case, a com- 
parison of individuals is made by the amount of material read 
rather than by the difficulty of the material. The assumption 
is made that since comprehension and rate vary from indi- 
vidual to individual or from grade to grade, these differences 
will appear in the amount of material read. Such a view seems 
to indicate that all comprehension is of the same type, and that 
experience and training allow it to proceed at a greater rate in 
the case of some pupils than is true of others. Another view 
would be that the higher levels of comprehension involve cer- 
tain mental activities which are not found in the lower levels. 
A test which employs material of varying difficulty would have 
the advantage of testing different levels of comprehension 
rather than a single level. Burgess (3) has presented arguments 
to show that reading tests based upon variations in the diffi- 
culty of the passages employed are not practicable. The argu- 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 29 

ments point out that in such scales it is almost impossible to 
properly control the time. The fact that this element is not 
properly controlled allows the child to skip around in the test 
and also gives opportunity for him to put much more time on 
one passage than another. These conditions give, according 
to this author, conglomerate scores of difficulty, quality, and 
amount in unknown and varying proportions. The same 
author has shown also that scores based upon the amount done 
are the most practicable. This is due to the fact that such 
scales make possible a better control of the time, of the diffi- 
culty of the passages, and of the response, than any other type 
of test. 

Existing Tests 

The next topic to be discussed is concerned with the tests 
which are being used. When this problem is approached, it is 
found that there is no general test for reading ability, but that 
a series of tests has been developed. Each of these is more or 
less specialized. The divisions to be mentioned at this point 
are those concerned with oral and silent reading. 

Oral Reading Tests 

Consideration of the tests which are being used in this field 
shows that no author pretends to have a test which covers this 
phase of reading ability in its entirety. It is recognized that 
ability in oral reading is of such a nature that it can be analyzed 
into various factors. A tentative analysis reveals at least four 
different standpoints from which this type of reading may be 
viewed. These are as follows: (i) as to the effect upon the 
hearer, (2) as to its quality, (3) as to the rate at which it pro- 
ceeds, and (4) as to the language ability involved. 

The Effect upon the Hearer. This phase of oral reading is 
emphasized in certain kinds of acting, in elocution and in public 
speaking. The same type of reading is involved in the in- 
struction of a class in which the teacher has a child read before 



30 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

the class a selection, which has not been previously heard by 
the children. The problem of the reader is to make the pas- 
sage intelligible to the class and to bring out any emotional 
effects which may be contained therein. Such reading is to be 
measured largely from the standpoint of the effect produced 
upon the hearer. If an actor receives a large salary from his 
manager, this manager is very much interested in the effect 
produced by the actor on his audience. A large part of such 
an effect is produced by the actor's being able to read his lines 
well. It is also true that the audiences who go to hear this 
actor, do so, in a measure, because they expect certain reactions 
to be produced within themselves by the work of the actor. 
From the above discussion, it will be seen that any public reader 
is interested in the effect of his work upon his listeners; and if 
he succeeds well in his work, he does so because his listeners 
enjoy the responses which he is able to produce in them. 

It is not too foreign to the topic at hand to emphasize that 
this phase of reading has received little attention in the schools. 
The child may read to the teacher or he may merely read the 
book, but it is very seldom that the audience receives any at- 
tention. Occasionally, one finds a teacher who has a child stand 
before the class and read a selection which the children have 
not heard before. After the reading is finished, criticisms 
follow which are based upon the understanding and feelings pro- 
duced by the reading. Reading viewed from this standpoint is 
almost entirely subjective in its nature. For this reason, no 
attempt has been made to measure the effects produced by such 
reading. 

Quality of Oral Reading. If the work of an actor is considered 
again, it is clear that the performance of such a person may be 
viewed by another from the standpoint of the technique and 
methods used to get results in the reading of the lines. Such 
technique involves poise, pitch of voice, emphasis, and many 
other elements. This phase of reading is emphasized very 
much by the instructor in public speaking, oratory, and other 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 31 

forms of public discourse, but only slightly by teachers of oral 
reading in the elementary schools. In general, it is true that 
the reader with the best technique gets the best results. 

In evaluating this phase of oral reading, the writer (8) has 
considered the following qualities: poise, pitch, articulation, 
pronunciation, emphasis, force, and interpretation. The plan 
used is tentative only. It could be refined considerably by 
determining the relative values of the various qualities, and by 
making the scores less subjective on the part of the examiner. 

Rate of Oral Reading. The rate of oral reading is peculiar in 
that it is very much limited by the physiological phases of 
vocalization, and by the fact that the perception of language 
through the ear is, relatively speaking, a slow process. For 
these reasons, oral reading can proceed only at a speed which is 
relatively slow. If, however, the reader could develop a very 
high vocal rate, such a rate would not be permitted on account 
of the difficulty of interpretation on the part of the hearer. This 
means that there is a certain limit beyond which the rate of 
oral reading must not pass, if the quality of the reading is to be 
considered good. Such a limit is probably an individual 
matter, the exact determination of which could be established 
only by careful experimental work. For the purpose of testing, 
however, some general rules in regard to the matter seem 
necessary. 

If this view is correct, it is true that in scoring oral reading 
a positive score should be given for rate up to this limit and a 
negative score if the rate surpasses this limit. In the tests 
which have been used thus far, a positive score has been given 
for all rates. Such a plan allows the subject to increase his rate 
deliberately beyond the point where good reading is possible, 
provided the mechanical manipulation of the language is cor- 
rect. If only the positive score is given, it is possible for the 
best scores to be made by persons who are, in reality, reading 
very poorly. 

Another problem in connection with rate is concerned with 



32 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

the language unit in which this phase of reading should be 
expressed. Both Gray (9) and Price (29) have used the word 
as the unit. At first, this seems satisfactory; but words differ 
much in length and hence certain ones will require a longer 
time for pronunciation than others. It has been suggested by 
some that the syllable might be used as the unit, but reflection 
shows that the syllable is open to the same objection as the 
word. Others have suggested that the line be used, but since 
this is not standardized it is not practicable. In view of all of 
these facts, it seems that the word as a unit of oral reading is 
most practicable, and probably it will continue to be used for 
some time. In support of this, there is considerable evidence 
to be found in eye-movement records for oral reading that such 
reading proceeds by words rather than by the larger units used 
in silent reading. 

Language Ability Involved. Successful reading involves a 
fluent and ready usage of language. This abihty divides itself 
into two parts, as follows: (i) the knowledge of individual 
words, and (2) the ability to deal with these words when they 
are found in connected discourse. 

The first point may be objected to on the basis that words 
are often known because of their context, and that, therefore, 
it is not necessary to know them individually. Whfle this may 
be true for a limited number of words, the greater part of the 
words in any passage must be known out of context. This is 
especially true where shades of meaning are involved. Not only 
is it important to be able to recognize words, but it is also 
essential that the reader be able to deal with new words. The 
importance of such a process comes from the fact that the child 
is constantly coming in contact with strange words. If he is 
to be self-helpful, he must have certain methods at hand by 
means of which these unfamiliar words may be attacked. Such 
ready recognition of words is usually established by drill upon 
sight words, while the principles of phonics give the child ability 
to deal with new words. 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 33 

Tests Dealing with Individual Words 

Two tests have been devised for measuring the vocabulary of 
children. Jones (14) has selected lists of words from ten 
primers on the basis of the number of times the different words 
are used in the various texts. To illustrate, the word "and" 
was used 704 times, and the word "drink" 34 times, while the. 
word "dash" was used only one time. 

In taking the test, the child is provided with a list of 192 sight 
words and 118 phonic words. These words appear in columns, 
and the subject is expected to pronounce them in order. Every 
word which is not recognized or which is stumbled over is in- 
dicated on the teacher's check card. Three methods of scoring 
are given. The one used and recommended by Jones involves 
large numbers and, without the use of an adding machine, 
would be tedious. 

The directions for giving the test are simple and easily under- 
stood. There seem to be no difficulties in administering the 
test, and it is printed in a simple and convenient form. Jones 
recommends that testing be discontinued with a class if it 
averages above 90 per cent. Another point made by this writer 
is that if a first-year class stands above 90 per cent it has had too 
much drill. Further than this, he thinks that any third grade 
ought to be able to make a score of 95 per cent. 

Haggerty (10) has criticized this test of Jones rather severely 
in the following terms: 

It might be correct to penalize a child 622 points for missing the word 
"man" and only 104 for missing the word "cap," if the coefficient of one's 
vocabulary were directly proportional to the number of times he had seen 
the word. Or it might be considered a more serious deficiency not to know 
"man" because in the future he would meet it much more frequently and, 
therefore, his deficiency would appear to plague him more often. The latter 
alternative can hardly be in mind, because the frequencies given are not 
for the number of times the word is yet to be experienced. They refer only 
to what has been. Probably the first assumption is, therefore, the one upon 
which the method is based, but for the words in Mr. Jones' hst, this assump- 
tion is far from true. Our test shows that the children knew "be" as well 



34 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

as "who," but the frequency of the former is 122 and of the latter is in. 
"The,"with a frequency of 5,129, was just as well known and no better than 
"too" with a frequency of 142. If the proposed method of scoring were to 
be applied with any degree of accuracy, we should have to know the exact 
number of repetitions required to learn every word used in the test. This 
we do not know. The figures given represent frequencies far too few for 
many of the words; for others, the amount of " overlearning " is so great 
that the number of frequencies is out of all proportion to the result. We 
should also have to know whether the child in question had met the word 
approximately that number of times. This we might assume if we knew the 
books studied and the general method followed. 

Haggerty (10) has also devised a scale for measuring the 
vocabulary of children in the first, second, and third grades. 
It consists of a set of phonetic words and a set of sight words. 
The words have been evaluated so that the test is made up of 
lists of words of the same degree of difficulty. The test is easy 
to give and the scoring is not difficult. 

The fundamental difference between the test of Jones and 
that of Haggerty is worth noticing. Both authors have at- 
tempted to evaluate different words. The method of Jones 
with its difficulties has already been pointed out. Haggerty's 
method is based upon the number of errors made by children 
who pronounce the various words. This method requires very 
careful interpretation of results. This is necessary because the 
difficulty which a word presents to a child depends upon the 
practice which the child has had with it. It is a well-known 
fact that, in any kind of learning, the effect of the early training 
produces greater increments than does the later training. This 
is usually expressed by saying that there is a more rapid progress 
made in the earlier periods of learning than in the later stages. 

Applying this principle of learning to the case in hand, one 
will see that differences in words in the early stages of the 
child's experiences with them will depend to such an extent upon 
practice that care must be exercised in determining whether it 
is differences in the difficulty of words that is being dealt witl' 
or whether it is differences in practice that produce the results. 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 35 

The need for such a distinction decreases after the Hmen of 
"being just able to recognize the word" is reached, and con- 
tinues to decrease until the word is learned perfectly. Hag- 
gerty has anticipated this difficulty in his discussion, as follows: 

Whether or not these words will maintain the same scale value in further 
testing will depend chiefly upon whether the children to be tested have met 
these words and phonograms in their reading the same number of times as 
had the children from whom these scale values were derived. 

It is also true that most, if not all, of the tests in reading are 
better adapted to deal with the reading habit, after the habit 
has been established, than to deal with reading in its very early 
stages. Attainment in this subject involves both practice and 
ability; and since practice has its greatest effect in the early 
stages of the training, differences in performance at this time 
may be due entirely to differences in practice. In the later 
stages of learning to read, the effects of differences in practice 
are not apt to be so great; hence the test becomes more nearly 
a test of abilities which are fundamental to attainment. 

Tests Dealing with Words in Context 

The discussion will now pass to a treatment of those tests 
which are concerned with the recognition and pronunciation of 
words in connected discourse. This involves two elements: 
the rate of reading and the ability to pronounce words. 

The first test to be considered here is one devised by Price 
(29). It consists of two selections for each of the school grades 
from the second to the eighth, inclusive. The first of these 
passages in each case is to be given to a grade in the early part 
of the school term and the second at the close of the term. The 
two selections for each grade are not of the same difficulty, but 
they have been weighted so that the final results are comparable. 
No details of the method by which this weighting is done are 
given. The passages in the test apparently vary in difficulty 
from grade to grade, but no statement is made concerning these 
differences. The time allowed for reading in each case is one 



36 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

minute. The test is given individually and two examiners are 
recommended. One of these makes a record of the time and the 
second one records the errors. The author does not suggest 
the use of a stop-watch, which simplifies the keeping of time so 
much that one person could give the test with little difficulty. 
The directions to both the teacher and the pupil are explicit 
and simple. In the directions to the children it is said that the 
purpose of the test is to determine how rapidly and accurately 
they can read. It may be that this emphasis on speed tends 
to increase the rate at which the children read during the test, 
while if some more general expression had been used, such an 
increase in rate might be obviated. 

The errors taken into consideration are miscalled words, 
words put in, words left out, and transposed words. Repe- 
titions are not recorded, because such errors are counted against 
the child in loss of time. Any mistake corrected by the child 
is not recorded as an error. The types of errors are first in- 
dicated by different symbols upon scratch paper. Later, each 
type is totaled and recorded on the score sheet. It would be 
much better if each mistake was indicated on a duplicate copy 
of the test and kept as a permanent record, because the mere 
number of errors is not the only important thing to be thought 
of. The psychology back of the errors is highly important, and 
any test should interest teachers in a detailed study of the 
records made. 

For the same reason, repetitions should be recorded. It may 
be true, as Price contends, that to count a repetition as an error 
is to count it doubly against the pupil, for the repetition neces- 
sarily lowers the rate. However, it should be emphasized that 
the reason for the repetition is important, and some record of 
such mistakes should be made. 

The scoring, of the test involves numbers in the thousands. 
Such numbers do not mean much to teachers, since they use, 
for the most part, a system of grading composed of numbers 
below one hundred. The test is printed in a convenient form, 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 37 

and numbers are provided in a column at the right showing 
the number of words in the selection up to the end of each line. 
The second test to be considered in this connection is by 
Gray (g). This test consists of twelve short selections varying 
in difficulty from very easy to difficult. The steps in difficulty 
have been carefully evaluated. The method by which this 
evaluation is made will be discussed later. Specific directions 
for giving and scoring the test are printed on a sheet separate 
from the test. The process of scoring is somewhat involved, 
but the final results are expressed in small nmnbers and are 
easily manipulated. In giving the test, there is always a short 
pause between the time that one selection is finished and the 
time that another begins. Under such conditions constant 
watching is required to keep the child from looking over the 
selection to be read next. Some change in the printed form 
of the test which would eliminate this difficulty would improve 
the test. 

Two t5T3es of data are recorded. These are the amount of 
time for reading each selection and the errors. The errors con- 
sidered are omissions, repetitions, substitutions, insertions, and 
gross and minor errors in pronunciation. Such errors are re- 
corded on a duplicate copy of the test. These duplicates serve 
as valuable reference material for the future work of the teacher. 

The chief difficulty which attaches to the use of this scale 
for diagnosis is the determination of rate. Before this can be 
done accurately, standards for the different paragraphs will 
have to be established for each of the several school grades. 

Both the Price test and the Gray test combine rate and 
quality into a single item. This is done upon the assumption 
that, if both factors are present in a high degree, a combination 
of them can be made to indicate a similar fact ; if one factor has 
a high score and the other a low score, a combination will in- 
dicate the same ; and if both elements are scored low, this would 
be indicated by the combination. This method has the dis- 
tinct advantage of simplifying the results, but makes it impos- 



38 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

sible to compare in any thoroughgoing way two scores which 
are numerically the same. For diagnostic purposes the method 
is undesirable, because in this type of work it is necessary to 
know which factor is low and which is high. 

The different passages which constitute the test vary as to 
their difficulty. It is evident that a complete interpretation 
of the results obtained by this test would require that the factors 
in the passages which make for differences in difficulty be fully 
understood. Courtis (6) has studied the test from this stand- 
point. He criticizes the scale because it seems to contain cer- 
tain pitfalls which it is very difficult for the untrained reader to 
avoid. A quotation from his discussion will make this point clear : 

Paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 have for the first word "once"; "Once there was," 
"Once thert, were," "Once there Hved." Paragraph 5, however, begins 
"One of the most interesting birds." Child after child, influenced by the 
preceding paragraphs, begins: "One of the." Thus in Class No. 11 Jefferson 
out of 40 children, 5 missed on this particular point. Tabulation of other 
classes yielded similar results. In general, one child in 10 is so susceptible 
to the habit-forming influence of the succession of "onces" that he will 
misread "one" in paragraph 5. In other words, in working with the scale 
one gains the impression that the difficulty of certain paragraphs of the 
scale is in part caused by the occurrence of certain traps or pitfalls, rather 
than by real increases in the difficulty of the reading. 

Other points of view from which the scale is studied by Courtis 
is the increase in difficulty of vocabulary, in length of sentence, 
in difficulty of sentence structure, and in content of material. 
The discussion of these various points is very brief, and the con- 
clusion is reached that the causes of the increase in difficulty 
from paragraph to paragraph is little understood. 

A summary of the discussion thus far is now in place. The 
six general statements which follow will serve for this: 

1. The term reading ability has two different meanings. 

2. The measuring of reading ability involves certain diffi- 
culties fundamental to the reading process. 

3. Knowledge of the reading process and experience with 
other types of testing make certain demands of all reading tests. 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 39 

4. Oral reading may be considered from four different stand- 
points. 

5. No attempt has been made to measure certain phases of 
oral reading, nor have all methods used in other cases yet been 
standardized. 

6. There are tests extant which measure oral reading ability 
to deal with individual words or with words in connected dis- 
course. 

Silent Reading Tests 

Tests of this type may be divided into two general classes: 
(i) those which deal with a knowledge of individual words, and 
(2) those which are concerned with the general problem of in- 
terpretation. The first kind of test is usually spoken of as a 
visual vocabulary test. Such a test has been devised by 
Thorndike (29). It consists of different series of words, which 
vary in difficulty. The difficulty has been carefully scaled. 
The test is printed in a form which makes it easy to administer 
and easy to score. Such a test is highly important from the 
standpoint of diagnosis, because the ready recognition of 
words is fundamental to all reading ability. Another vocabu- 
lary test has been devised by Pressy and Skeel (28). 

Silent Reading Tests which Involve Interpretation 
of Connected Material 

In evaluating* this type of reading, two factors must be taken 
into consideration. These are rate and comprehension. 

Rate of Silent Reading. The rate of silent reading is different 
from the rate of oral reading, in that there are no physiological 
limits placed upon it. Silent reading is an individual matter 
and the rate depends entirely upon the reader's own mental 
activity. If the reading activity of a child is such that all 
phases of comprehension take place easily and readily, it is 
possible for such a pupil to develop a rapid rate of reading, be- 
cause the degree of rapidity is entirely a subjective matter and 



40 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

has no relation to any objective factors, as in oral reading. The 
rate of silent reading, then, is an index of comprehension, and 
it is for this reason that it is considered important in the study 
of reading. 

Unit of Rate of Silent Reading. An important problem aris- 
ing in dealing with rate is that of the unit in which it is to be 
expressed. Logically, this problem should be approached in 
terms of the unit by which silent reading proceeds. The diffi- 
culty encountered here is that experiments show clearly that 
the unit of silent reading is not fixed, but that it varies with 
different readers and with the same reader from time to time. 
When easy and familiar material is used, the reading activity 
of an experienced person may proceed in units as large as phrases 
or short sentences, while under other conditions the reading of 
the same person may proceed by words or syllables. In the 
case of the untrained and inexperienced reader, it is very doubt- 
ful if the unit of silent reading is ever greater than the word. 
In view of these facts, the unit usually selected by investigators 
is the word. Such a unit should be thought of as meeting the 
conditions only in a very general way. 

Comprehension in Silent Reading. Comprehension of this 
kind is an exceedingly complex and highly specialized activity. 
It is well understood that all reading involves the simpler 
processes of sensation and perception, but it needs to be em- 
phasized that, in addition to these, many types of reading re- 
quire most of the higher mental processes, such as judgment 
and reason. This means that the problems involved in testing 
and measuring comprehension are difficult and complex. 

Methods of Testing Comprehension. An approach to this 
phase of the problem may be made by raising the question as to 
what tests of comprehension the school uses. The schools are, 
to a very large extent, reading schools, and as a result they use 
tests of comprehension of various types. A complete catalogue 
of these various tests would be difficult to make, but among 
those used are the following: (i) oral and written questions, 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 41 

(2) oral and written reproduction, (3) outlining, (4) drawing, 
(5) dramatizing, (6) emotional reactions, and (7) direction tests 
as seen in assignments. Of this list the written question, 
written reproduction, outlining, and the direction tests have 
been used as methods of testing comprehension in silent reading 
by different investigators. 

The Question as a Means of Testing Comprehension 

The question is probably used more frequently in the school 
than any other method of testing comprehension. It is used 
in all subjects of the curriculum and by all teachers under most 
of the conditions which arise in teaching. Any test for silent 
reading which is based upon the question places children in a 
familiar situation, so that the most of their time and energy goes 
into the interpretation of the material submitted to them and 
not into adjusting themselves to the situation. Another im- 
portant value of the question is that it always starts a train of 
associations, and as a result the child is not left to react in a 
perfectly spontaneous manner. Another point of more doubtful 
value is that the question does not involve all the passage 
read. Usually there are sufficient questions to cover only the 
main points of a passage. Usually there is little, if any, rela- 
tion existing between the questions, and the memory involved 
is necessarily somewhat mechanical in its nature. But, on the 
other hand, the question involves only a limited language ability, 
since it can be answered in many cases by one or two words ; and 
finally, it is fairly easy to score and so lends itself well to testing. 

An important limitation of the question as an instrument 
for testing reading lies in the fact that it tests some capacity 
in addition to the ability to read. This additional element is 
the ability to answer the questions themselves, which is a highly 
specialized ability, including, as Thorndike (33) says, "all the 
features characteristic of typical reasoning." For example, 
two pupils may actually possess equal ability to derive meaning 
from the printed page, but one may score above the other be- 



42 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

cause he more readily grasps the meaning of the question pre- 
sented or more easily formulates his replies to them. However, 
the specific ability involved may be improved by practice, which 
would reduce, if not remove, the limitation. If this view is 
accepted, then tests based upon the question must be regarded 
as tests of a specialized form of reading abihty and not as tests 
of general reading ability. 

Existing Tests based upon the Question as a Means 
of Testing Comprehension 

Tests involving the question have been used by the following 
authors: Courtis (5), Fordyce (7), Gray (9), Kelly (17), Monroe 
(22), and Thorn dike (35). Among the tests one finds at least 
three types of questions used. These are factual, puzzle, and 
direct questions. Fordyce, Gray, and Thorndike use the first 
type; Kelly and Monroe make use of both the first and second 
kinds; and Courtis uses the last. In the use of all these types, 
the authors strive for questions the answers to which may have 
but one interpretation. This characteristic is essential to the 
objectivity of tests, the necessity for which was pointed out in 
an early part of the discussion. In the case of the factual 
question, it is easy to see that answers may be given which 
would be highly ambiguous. This difficulty in interpretation 
has been obviated in certain cases by listing answers which may 
be considered as standards. With even this precaution, how- 
ever, there yet remains room for doubt as to the meaning of 
some answers. 

The puzzle question as used by Kelly and Monroe is ob- 
jective in a large degree. This objectivity probably results 
from both the type of question and the material used. These 
authors have published also a list of answers which serve as an 
aid in evaluating the results for certain questions about which 
there may be some doubt. 

It will be seen that a direct question can be made most 
objective, for there are just two answers which can be given to 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 43 

such a question. These are "yes" and "no." To make per- 
fectly sure that no doubt will arise, Courtis publishes a Hst of 
answers. The difficulty here lies in the fact that the pupil may 
guess at every question and yet may get fifty per cent of the 
answers correct. This problem has been taken into account 
by Courtis in his method of scoring. The plan used amounts to 
doubling the number of incorrect answers. 

Other points concerning each of these tests may now be 
given. 

The Courtis Test. This test is published in a very convenient 
form, and detailed directions for scoring are given. The method 
of scoring is not elaborate and requires little or no knowledge 
of statistical work. The test uses as material a story of- seventy 
lines. In giving the test, the teacher has the child read the 
entire story first. It is then read again in sections of five or 
six lines each, and five questions are asked upon each of the 
sections. This second reading of the material introduces an 
element into the results which is different from that used by 
other authors. Nothing is said concerning the relative diffi- 
culty of the various sections and a survey of them leads to the 
conclusion that they do not vary much. In this case, reading 
ability is measured by the amount read rather than by variations 
in the difficulty of the material. 

The Fordyce Test. This test is published in a form which is 
convenient to use. There are two passages used. The first 
is for the third, fourth, and fifth grades, and includes thirty-two 
lines. The second selection is for the sixth, seventh, and eighth 
grades, and includes forty-five lines. The directions for giving 
the test are ample and can be followed easily. The scoring is 
simple, and answers to the questions, along with their relative 
weights, are published. 

In determining rate this author allows a definite time for the 
reading by each grade. This time is based upon standards 
estabhshed by Starch and others. When it is considered that 
Starch used an entirely different method of testing reading and 



44 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

employed very different material, a question may be raised as 
to the validity of applying his standards to this test. 

In carrying out the test, the examiner calls time while the 
pupil is in the midst of his reading. The directions require that 
he mark the word at which he is reading when time is called, 
and then proceed as before to the end of the selection. It is 
very probable that such directions have a decided influence 
upon the reading rate. A carefully checked experiment made 
by a colleague of the writer showed a very decided tendency to 
increase the rate of reading when directions of this sort were 
given. The score for rate and the score for comprehension are 
expressed separately. 

The Gray Test. This test is published in a form which lends 
itself to use for individual testing. If careful directions for 
giving and scoring the test, along with typical answers to the 
questions, were published, the test would be much more service- 
able. Three passages are employed. The first is used in 
grades two and three; the second is given to grades four, five, 
and six; and the third is used in grades seven and eight. Ten 
questions are given on each selection. 

The same selections are used by this author as a basis for a 
test by means of reproduction; that is, the same pupils deal 
with the same passages from the standpoint of reproduction and 
of answering questions. Just what effect this procedure has 
upon the results is not easy to determine. 

The form in which the test has been printed is a very great 
aid in getting the rate accurately in individual testing. The 
selection appears in three columns on a piece of cardboard. 
When the eyes of the reader are raised from the bottom of the 
first column to the top of the second column, time may be 
noted; and when the eyes are raised from the bottom of the 
second column to the top of the third, time may be noted again. 
If this is done carefully, the time for reading the middle column 
may be had accurately. The scores for rate and compre- 
hension are expressed separately. 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 45 

The Kelly Test. This test has been worked out in a form 
which can be used very easily by teachers. The directions for 
scoring are printed on a sheet separate from the test, while the 
directions for giving the test are printed on the first page and 
are to be read by the pupils and the teacher together. 

The test consists of a series of short paragraphs which are in 
no way related to one another. Not only are they unrelated, 
but they apparently call for very different types of compre- 
hension as well as specialized abilities of different kinds. The 
several passages have been carefully graded in regard to diffi- 
culty, both as to rate and comprehension. This allows for a 
test both by the amount read and by the difficulty of the 
material read. 

The two factors, speed and comprehension, have been com- 
bined into a single index for each passage, and the final score is 
the sum of the indices for the passages correctly read. Such 
a method of scoring is exceedingly simple and is easily carried 
out. 

The total time allowed for the test is five minutes. This, 
within itself, is ample; but when the very short passages are 
considered, it will be seen that the time for most of the selec- 
tions is under the hmit set by Starch. 

The Monroe Test. This test is very similar to the Kelly test. 
One difference lies in the fact that the several selections are 
given both a rate value and a comprehension value, while in the 
Kelly test these two factors are united into a single index. A 
second difference is the types of material used. Many of the 
selections in the Kelly test deal with topics which are entirely 
new to the pupil. Results obtained in this manner could hardly 
be thought of as a true measure of reading abiUty. Monroe has 
obviated this difficulty by using, for the most part, material of 
the same kind as that which appears in school readers. 

The Thorndike Test. This test has been published in a form 
which is very usable. The technique of giving the test is simple 
and the scoring is not difficult. A set of answers which help in 



46 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

evaluating the answers of children is given. The test consists 
of a series of selections not in any way related to each other. 
These are of different degrees of difficulty. Each selection has 
been carefully graded in this regard. 

The directions give the child the opportunity to read a selec- 
tion as many times as necessary, in order to be able to answer 
the questions. The rate at which a child reads is not taken into 
consideration. A test which neglects rate is often spoken of as 
a difficulty test, while those which take this element into con- 
sideration are referred to as rate tests. It is urged against the 
rate tests that there are many factors which affect performance 
from the standpoint of rate. Therefore, unless very great 
precautions are taken, results which involve rate may be in- 
accurate. On the other hand, if rate is neglected, it appears 
that one element which makes for inaccuracy in testing has 
been eliminated, and that data obtained in this manner are 
therefore more reliable. There are those who hold that all 
tests should be of the difficulty type. 

Reproduction as a Test of Comprehension 

Reproduction as a method of testing comprehension is used 
by the school to a very great extent. This method probably 
stands next to the question method in the number of times that 
it is employed. Only one form, written reproduction, has been 
used by investigators in reading. 

As a method of testing reading, this type of work is one with 
which the children are familiar, so that probably little, if any, 
of their energy goes into adjusting themselves to the situation. 
The written product is obtained in a free and spontaneous way 
and does not depend upon trains of thought suggested by ques- 
tions, or by any other means. This involves memory to a large 
degree, although it may be thought of as logical memory, since 
the test usually requires the reproduction of a story. Language 
ability is also involved to a considerable degree. Hence, the 
subject who has ability to write readily and fluently will do 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 47 

much better in a test of this sort than will one who does not 
have such ability. The fact that the reaction is somewhat long 
either makes the test long or reduces the amount of material 
read. 

The greatest difficulty in connection with this method is 
found in the scoring of the results. This raises the question 
as to what a perfect reproduction is, and how near any one 
reproduction comes to perfection. Different methods for 
obviating this difficulty have been used. Starch used the num- 
ber of words reproduced in relation to the number of words in 
the selection. This involves the elimination of certain words 
or phrases from the reproduction which are irrelevant, and thus 
introduces a variable factor into the results because of differences 
of opinions. Other authors have used the method of dividing 
the original selection into units of thought and giving credit 
for the number of these units reproduced. This method has 
probably been used more widely than any other. Kallom (i6) 
and Gray (9) have compared reproduction and the question as 
a means of testing comprehension. Gray concludes that the 
question is superior to reproduction and Kallom's results show 
that one is as good as the other. 

Existing Tests Based upon Reproduction 

Brown'' s Test (2). This test has been published in a mono- 
graph which gives results obtained by using it. Both the 
technique and the directions for giving it are simple and easily 
executed. Only one selection is used, so that the test depends 
upon the amount of material read rather than upon varying 
degrees of difficulty. 

The scoring is done by dividing the original selection into 
units. These units are indicated in the monograph. The re- 
sults for rate and reproduction are combined into a single score. 

Gray^s Test (p). The same selections as mentioned in this 
author's test by means of questioning are used for reproduction. 
The method employed in scoring consists in eliminating first of 



48 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

all the irrelevant matter. The remaining material is evaluated 
in terms of the number of words reproduced correctly. The 
scores for rate and comprehension are expressed separately. 

Starch'' s Test (jj). This test is printed in a form which 
makes it usable. The directions for giving it are simple. The 
test consists of a series of selections of varying difi&culty, but 
the difficulty of the passages has not been carefully scaled. 
The time allowed for reading is thirty seconds, and the scores for 
rate and comprehension are expressed separately. 

Other Tests of Reading Ability 

There are certain other tests which should be mentioned that 
are not so well known as those just discussed. The school re- 
quires other types of reading than those for the purpose of 
answering questions or reproduction. Among these are very 
rapid reading, skimming, reading in response to certain direc- 
tions, and reading for the purpose of outlining. 

Skimming Tests. For skimming, the writer (8) has used a 
Newspaper Test in which the child is required to find a given 
article in a paper as quickly as possible. This test has the 
advantage of requiring a reaction which does not involve 
language ability. It is of such a nature that the rate cannot be 
expressed in words per second, but has to be expressed as the 
total number of minutes or seconds required for the test. No 
standards have been published. 

The Direction Test. This test has been used by Thorndike 
(35). It consists of a series of simple directions for doing simple 
things. The child is accustomed to direction in his assignments, 
which may be either oral or written. In spite of this, the situ- 
ation presented in the Thorndike Test is somewhat novel, and, 
no doubt, the child may be confused by it. The reaction does 
not depend upon language ability, and memory is involved in 
only a small degree. The material read is simple and the inter- 
pretation apparently does not require the same mental activities 
as are involved in other types of reading. The test is of such 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 49 

a nature that no measure of the rate, as a separate factor, can be 
made. Pintner and Toops (27) have used this test with a large 
number of children and have published norms for ages ranging 
from seven to seventeen years. A carefully prepared test by 
Burgess (3) may be classified under this general heading. The 
test is composed of a series of passages of equal difiiculty and the 
response called for by the various processes are very similar. 
Care has been taken to control vocabulary difficulty, word ar- 
rangement, print, etc. A series of tests of increasing difiiculty 
similar to this could be devised which would aid in solving the 
difficulties encountered by various authors of reading tests and 
at the same time such a series would meet the objections raised 
by Miss Burgess. 

Outline Test. This test stands between the question test and 
the reproduction test in that nothing is given to start a chain of 
associations, and yet the reaction is not so extensive as that re- 
quired in reproduction. The writer's (8) use of it has shown 
that it requires the evaluation of the material read, and success 
with it apparently depends upon the training given by the 
school. 

The Haggerty Tests. These tests vary the type of response 
and are, therefore, difficult to classify in the preceding scheme. 
The Sigma 3 test (12) makes use of a vocabulary test, a sentence 
test, and a test composed of connected material. Each type of 
material varies in difficulty. The response called for in the last 
type of test requires the selection of the proper response from a 
series of responses. The Sigma i test (13) is for use in grades 
1-3. It involves material which varies in difficulty. The re- 
sponses are based upon the direct question, the direction test, 
and the choice of the correct response from a series of 
responses. 

A summary of the discussion upon silent reading tests is now 
in order, as follows: 

(i) The unit of the rate of silent reading is a variable, and 
only as it meets a practical situation is the word a valid unit. 



50 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



H 





tn 








11 








M 








f^ 








^^ 








a 


bT 


-n 




•^ 


f^ 




m 


rt 


t* 




(J 








m 


rt 






fl 









o 


<u 


en 

<u 




CJ 




crt 




« 


->i 




D 




O 




^ 




^ 












OJ 




dJ 




>^ 




> 


r/1 








H 








r/1 








W 


(U 




4J 




fl 




c 




o 




o 


^ 




^ 


9 








w 








Oi 








1-1 


T3 






< 


(U 






rt 


T3 






o 


O 
















(U 








c3 








> 




k^ 




C 




s 




o 




o 




















rt 




fH 












(J 




(J 






o 


13 




>-. rt 


I-, 


C! 




s s 


o 


2 




uc^ 


o^ii 




p^ 




to 




rt 








M 




; 




o 


fl. " 





yj 










en 






tn 




<u 










(U 






<u 




bO 










bo 






bO 




o3 










03 






o3 




tn 
















tn 


0) 


en 

o3 




4J 


en 


en 


en 

o3 

a 








5f 


-a 




bC 




bo 2 


-a 






-a 




S 




rt 


?^ W 


OJ 






0) 


t/J 


(J 




en 




en t^ 


en "-^ 




en 


tj 


03 


■u 




.-s 


o3 o 


o3 o 


s <" ■ 




OJ 


Oi 


fl 




& 


cu<ii 


a>ii 


u C 




<J 


3 


JJ 


o 




u 


OJ en 


Ji 'S 


<u o 






§ 


"bb 


(-> 




"Sd 


bCr; 


briT 


4-j C 






<~> 




en 

Q 




.S 


.S "S 


.3 S 


C.en 




<u 


en 

3 


o 


9j 




O 


o 


o 


o 




O 


o 


^ 


>^ 




^ 


;2; 


•^ 


^ 




^ 


12: 


.S 




g 




































IS 




IS 
























































> 




> 




+-> 


-u 














^ 


bD 


0) 








^ 


_>< 


-^ 03 






CTl 


»-i 


M 










C ir> 




c 


en 


i2f 


eu 






c 


c 


OJ c« 




CU 


en 


tft 


to 






w 


<u 


t-i 03 




»-H 


d 


iri en 


• -C en 








I-, 


irf a. 




o3 


a 


-C O 


TD OJ 






c3 


03 


'^17 




a 




>-V 


i-^S 


en 




a 


P. 




o 
2 


a 
< 


OJ 


o 2 

t^ be 


o 2 

b-, bb 


OJ 




a, 


a 


i-i 


o 






^ 


b 


O 


o 




T3 


13 






-a 


3 


3 








u 


o t; 






3 

cr 
aj 
P4 


o t: 


8t^ 


id 

:s Si 


be 

g 
1 


> 

Si 
a 


en 

(U 
bO 
bO 
3 
If) 




b 






T3 


-a 


t 




b 


b 




03 






OJ 


(U 


03 




o3 


03 




> 






"H 


"H 


> 




> 


> 




>. 






o 


o 


>. 




>> 


>> 




03 






4J 


OJ 


o3 




03 


cS 




^ 






Pi 


f4 


^ 




^ 


^ 


t3 


TS 




13 


en 

0) 


s 


XJ 




•Td 


-d 


u 


<U 




<u 


03 




<u 




(U 


0) 


X 


X 




X 


X 




X 


X 


















E 


E 




E 


> 


> 


pu, 




tij 


U^ 


c! 










d 








£2 

0) 


_0 










.2 








S ^ 


tj 
3 


II 


.ss 


C o 

^ en 


tj en 


o S 




en 

G 


^1 


2 




en 


T3.0 

2^ 


•" .2 
Si S 




.2 


•s 3 


a 


en 


(U 


en <u 


CU OJ 




(U 


"^•c 


OJ 


O "-H 


C 


3 


C D 


OJ 3 


.3 3 




3 


-C i 


P^ 


PhQ 


^c <0' P^cy Qc 




o u ^1 














>^ 








c 


in 

(U 


en 


8 
>» 






o3 <^ 


e^ 


1 


f 




o 


O 


2 


bJO e-i 
bO a 
oi bO 


1)2 


en 

lU 


pq 


pq 


u 


fe 


o 


WcZ 


cJ: 


H 


H 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 



51 



cj 





-3 

CO 




1 

jo_ 






i 


a 
fa. 


0^ 




1 









rn 




rn 






rn] 






<u 




<1) 












hn 




hf) 






bfi 






nl 




rt 






nj 






















nj 




tT( 






en 






a 




u, 




T3 


a 






T) 




T) 


tr 




-n 






(li 




a> 




cc 


0) 




















u 




(J 


r^; 




CJ 






o 




(U 


Ri 




OJ 






d 




d 


a-^ 


d 






o 




o 


<u 


en 

i1) 


d 
o 










1.J 


I-l 










.ty 




t/j 


d 


fTf 








Q 




Q 


C/D 


> 


« 






















(U 




(LI 




o 


OJ 






>H 




>^ 




^ 


^ 


-T^ 




















































(IJ 




(U 




OJ 


OJ 


•^ 




>H 




>l 




>H 


>^ 


a 


O 




o 




S-i 




1) 




hr 


,j_J 


hr 


4j 


o 




H 
CO 


-.3 
o 


> 


o 


d 
> 

I-l 

a 


a, 
d 


tn 
0) 
bC 
bO 

d 


















O 














-73 


y, 














si: 
















0) 


^ 




>i 




>, 






-d 




















nt 




rt 






d 






> 




> 






o 


H 




>. 




>. 








'A 




d 




nS 






o 


1-1 




^ 




^ 






^ 


















t/i 














■d 
2 

12 

'35 
d 
o 

CJ 






T) 




-rj 




T) 






1) 




0) 




1) 












« 




X 
























^iK 




tL. 




\^ 


'A 














d 
















o 






































O 


d 


d 
o 


d 




d 


d 










Tl 
















2 
















tfi 




<u 


w 




Dh 


<u 














aj 






QO QC 




e^ 


C 
















(U 






















>. 


2 

d 




T) 


d 




=j 




^ 


o 






^ 






^ 
h 













-d 




Tl 




IH 








o 




O 




& 




is 




-d 




Tl 




(U 




Cli 












c^ 




n 












o 




f:i 












^ 




1—1 




»i 




ro 




OJ 




<U 




Sh 




1^ 










t/3 


(U 




CIJ 


> 




>H 


W 








H 








> 








OJ 








<C 
















t) 








m 








■31 








r ) 








O 








> 








O 








'A 
















c; 








g 








o 








y. 








o 










-d 




-d 




<u 




OJ 












(U 




OJ 




-d 




-d 




















d 




d 




o 




C5 




U 




CJ 




] . 




,^_) 




o 




o 




^ 




^ 




d 


d 






o 


o 






















c^ 


c^ 














CJ CO 


( J 






dTi 


d 


-d 




O ^ 


d 
o 


p 




J-' <*-, 








fln^ 


Vh 


o 




>. 
















s-i 








<u 








bO 


0) 

d 
o 
1—. 













to 














0) 




























JD 














C!3 


to 










T1 




"9 










i 


II 


i 










-d 


•d 










oj 




cd 










m 


o 










t/J 
1— 1 


ZCAI 


HH 
























O 




<U 










^ 


^ 


>H 










>i 


>^ 








































d 


d 












0) 


(D 


























en 


c3 












a 


a 












a 


a. 


J^ 


in 








< 


< 


> 
















'D 














W 














H 














>< 














« 














<" 














1-1 














& 




























< 














CJ 














n 














> 














1-1 














< 














t3 














rf) 




























> 
























b 














CS 

> 












-n 


-d 










<i) 




(U 










t^ 




X 










PH 


^ 


fe 












d 










d 




o 


d 








c 




."S CO 


O to 










■d 


cS 


•^s-a 








d 


o 


^o 


^ 9 








cd 


fe: 


s & 


cd ^ 








CIJ 














Q 


o 


Pi's 


P o 












-d 


<u 




>> 


ro 






y 


"-d 




(1) 






H 


I>-1 


d 




bC 

b/) 


a 


-M 


^-s 


O 










J 


2 ^ 






ffi 


C/2 


H 


flnOl 


H 



52 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

(2) There are several different methods of testing comprehen- 
sion, which are used by the school. The two methods most 
often used in testing reading ability involve written questions 
and written reproduction. Each of these methods has its dis- 
tinct difficulties and its marked advantages. (3) The various 
reading tests are compared in Table I. 

It is evident from the preceding discussion of the various 
tests that the measurement of reading ability will be still further 
refined in the future and that more accurate results will be com- 
piled. Any diagnosis which is undertaken at present is not to 
be considered as final. Diagnosis cannot outdistance analysis; 
but, as analysis is extended and made more detailed by means 
of tests and experiments, diagnosis will become more and more 
reliable. 

Uniformity of Aims and Results of Reading Tests as a 
Means of Judging their Accuracy 

One method of evaluating tests has been set forth in the 
criteria at the beginning of the chapter. The writer, in dealing 
with the present problem, proposes to study the aims and 
results of various tests to determine whether they are in 
reality measuring reading ability, and if they do measure this 
process, to determine whether the measurement is accurate 
and reliable. 

Otis (24) argues that the present tests are not altogether 
reliable, because different writers are apparently working at 
cross purposes. In support of this he quotes tho function of 
different tests as stated by their authors. Such statements 
seem to indicate that investigators have different conceptions 
of the process of reading, and that the tests do not measure the 
same thing. Another view of this matter is that reading is a 
very complex activity, u.nd that the various authors are attack- 
ing it from different points of view. When one author states 
the purpose of his test in terms of reproduction, and another in 
terms of answering questions, they are both interested in inter- 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 53 

pretation as found in the reading process, but they are dealing 
with it from different standpoints. 

The same point is brought out in other fields of mental testing. 
Each test measures a different mental function, and the purpose 
of such tests may be stated in very different terms; yet the 
question of what mental activity is, is seldom raised. In other 
words, it is recognized that mental activity is highly complex 
and that each mental test is aimed only at one phase of it. 

Otis also argues that before progress can be made it will be 
necessary to decide upon some definition of reading ability. 
The definition which he proposes is as follows: 

It would seem then that reading ability, to be defined logically, must be 
considered as embodying in essence only those mental processes which are 
concerned in reahty with the specific visual symbols as such. Other mental 
activities involved in the total reading complex may be spoken of as "supra- 
reading" or the accompaniments of the reading process. 

If this view is accepted, the fact remains that these "supra- 
reading" activities are involved in the actual reading processes 
and, evidently, children vary in them as well as in this essential 
phase of reading outhned by Otis. If such differences do exist, 
it seems necessary to study them. Even if the correlation be- 
tween the essential elements and the supra elements is very high, 
there would be certain pupils the results from whom would show 
a lack of correlation and would, therefore, need detailed study. 

Richards and Davidson (3) argue much the same as Otis. 
The following quotation is taken from their work: 

The variety of currently used reading tests gives concrete evidence of the 
lack of a corresponding definition of reading ability and of the difficulty of 
formulating pne. 

Further on in their discussion, these authors assert that the 
blanket term " reading test " should not be used. The same 
authors have given various reading tests to different groups of 
children and from these results have derived the correlations ^ 

1 For an explanation of this term along with other statistical terms, see Appendix A. 



54 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



shown in Table II. This table indicates a correlation of .38 
between the results of the Trabue Test and the vocabulary tests, 
and equally low correlations for the results of the other tests. 
These indicate to Richards and Davidson a disparity in the 
abilities which the tests are measuring; and since the tests 
apparently measure different abilities, these authors imply in 
their statements that the tests are unreliable. To argue that 
reliability means conformity in results is a doubtful procedure, 
unless reading is only one thing, and is that one thing under all 
circumstances. So long as we have oral and silent reading, slow 

Table II — Table of the Aggregates of Coefficients 

Showing Correlations existing between Results for Various Reading Tests 
by Richards and Davidson 





V 


T 


N 


K 


S 


Sum 


V 


— 


38 


36 


39 


33 


1.46 


T 


38 




42 


38 


28 


1.46 


N 


36 


42 


— 


32 


30 


1 .40 


K 


39 


38 


32 


— 


25 


1-34 


S 


S3 


28 


30 


25 


— 


—1. 16 


Sum 


1 .46 


1 .46 


1.40 


1-34 


1. 16 





T = Trabue K = Kelly 

V = Vocabulary S = Starch 

N = Narrative Completion 

reading and fast reading, and reading with different purposes 
and aims, it is doubtful whether uniformity of aims and results 
in testing reading ability will be attained. It is probably true 
that some common element runs through all types of reading 
and that a test as suggested by Otis is desirable, but it is ex- 
ceedingly doubtful if such a test will replace all the reading tests 
used at present. 

Starch (32) has also attacked the problem of the reliability 
of reading tests by giving the same tests a second time after an 
interval of six weeks. With one exception, these correlations 
vary from .60 to .82. Another method used by this author con- 
sisted in comparing the uniformity of the scores obtained in the 



SURVEY OF READING TESTS 55 

successive use of the tests with the uniformity of teachers' 
marks in estimating the same examination paper. He also 
compared the mean variation derived from the successive use of 
the test and the mean variation derived from the teachers' 
marks. From these two groups of results Starch concludes that 
a single application of any one of the three reading tests used 
is probably from three to five times as reliable as the mark given 
to a piece of work by a single teacher. 

This author also finds the average correlation between re- 
sults obtained by three different tests to be as follows: 

Kansas (Kelly) and Thorndike . 53 
Kansas (Kelly) and Starch . 53 

Thorndike and Starch .40 

These coefficients are much higher than those found by Richards 
and Davidson. This disparity in the two groups of data is 
explained by Starch as due to the fact that the correlations of 
Richards and Davidson were based upon single measures. The 
results obtained by Starch indicate to him a high degree of 
reliability for the reading tests used. The number of cases 
used in determining his correlations are very few, and it is 
doubtful whether his results can be accepted as giving a final 
solution for the problem. 

Still another author interested in the problem of reliability 
of reading tests is Breed (i). This investigator gave the Thorn- 
dike and Starch tests to four hundred sixth-grade children. 
These pupils were divided into nine different groups. The 
correlations found between the comprehension scores for the 
two tests in the various groups are shown in Table III. 

In commenting on these results, Breed says: 

Furthermore, on account of the variety and complexity of mental func- 
tions involved in comprehension, functions varying from the simplest asso- 
ciation that yields a meaning to the subtlest selective thinking, it seems clear 
that each test might measure some phase of comprehension, yet not the same 
abihty. 



56 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Table III 

Showing Correlations between the Results for the Thorndike and Starch Reading 
Tests, by Breed 

Group Correlation 

A 38 

B .19 

C 26 

D -.26 

E — .01 

F 03 

G 16 

H OS 

I 26 

Average 11 

The conclusion to be reached from the discussion of the re- 
liabihty of tests is that the present reading tests are each valu- 
able for measuring a particular phase of reading ability, but 
that no single test should be taken as indicative of all phases 
of the reading process. As has been suggested, reproduction 
and answering questions as methods of testing comprehension 
both have fundamental difficulties. These difficulties hark 
back to the degree of memory, language ability, etc., involved 
in the response. From this, it would seem that the reliability 
of these methods of testing reading would have to be stated in 
terms of the amount of memory and language ability involved, 
rather than in terms of the variability of the results obtained 
by such tests. Two methods may agree in results and yet be 
very unreliable tests; or they may disagree in the results given, 
and yet be very unreliable, because they may be testing two 
different phases of reading ability. 



CHAPTER III 

A SURVEY OF SOME OF THE RESULTS OF READING 

TESTS; DIAGNOSIS BASED UPON READING 

TESTS AND THEIR RESULTS 

The preceding discussion has indicated certain fundamental 
phases of reading abihty. These various factors will not be 
discussed from the standpoint of the results obtained by the 
different tests previously treated. 

Knowledge of Words 

This problem will be dealt with from two points of view: 
(i) errors in oral reading will be studied, and (2) the results 
from Thorndike's word test will be considered. 

Errors in Oral Reading. Such tests as Gray's and Price's 
make it possible to study in detail the errors which children 
make in oral reading. Such a study has been made by McLeod 
(20). His results are summarized in Table IV. This table 
indicates clearly that gross mispronunciation is the most 
common error for the first grade, while substitutions are next 
in order. 

In the second grade, substitution is the most characteristic 
form of errors. McLeod is of the opinion that this change in 
the type of error may be due to a change of method in the read- 
ing used by the first and second grade children. The change 
depends upon a shifting of attention from the individual word 
to groups of words. A second suggestion given by this author 
is that at this stage, as well as in the third and fourth grades, 
the pupil has a limited knowledge of a large number of words, 
but that this knowledge is not sufficiently intimate for him to be 
certain of his recognition. 

57 



58 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



In the third and fourth grades, minor mispronunciations 
assume second rank. This type of error, according to the author, 
occurs more often than gross mispronunciations, because the 
child is beginning to use his abihty to analyze words, and this 
ability makes his pronunciation correct in most respects. The 
table shows, furthermore, that in grades five, six, seven, and 
eight the relative frequency of the various types of errors is 
much the same. 

In studying the omissions, repetitions, insertions, and mis- 
pronunciations in the reading of a small number of pupils dis- 
tributed through the various school grades above the third, the 
writer (8) found that the only error which was reduced to any 
great extent through these grades is mispronunciation. Dia- 
gram m shows the decrease effected in omissions, and Dia- 
gram IV shows the same facts in regard to mispronunciations. The 
height of the rectangles indicates the number of errors, and each 
rectangle represents one pupil. These diagrams show that 
there is a very large decrease in the number of mispronunciations 



Table IV 

Showing Relative Frequency of Various Types of Errors in Oral Reading, by 

McLeod 



Grades 


I 

44.8 


II 

23-8 


III 

18. 1 


IV 

II. 6 


V 

13-8 


VI 

16.7 


VII 

II. 8 


VIII 


Gross mispronunciations 


10.5 


Minor mispronunciations 


I.Q 


3-8 


23.2 


21.8 


32.0 


3<^.3 


31-4 


41.9 


Omissions 


1.6 


5-2 


4-0 


8.0 


4-7 


Q.O 


8.2 


4-7 


Substitutions 


,Si-0 


36. Q 


28.2 


,S0.8 


24.6 


20.6 


26.4 


18. q 


Insertions 


4-7 


4.4 


II .1 


7-5 


6.6 


6.1 


8.8 


7.0 


I^epetitions 


15 -I 


25-9 


14.2 


20.2 


18. 1 


II. I 


13.2 


16.8 



after the fifth grade, and that the decrease in the number of 
omissions through the grades is very small. Such facts indicate 
clearly that it is either relatively easy to reduce mispronun- 
ciation, or that the training of the school is centered upon errors 
of this type, while errors of other kinds are either hard to 
eradicate or the training is not effective. 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 



59 



Repetitions. In some unpublished work upon mistakes made 
by the first, second, and third grade children, the writer has 

Diagram III 
Showing Distribution of Omissions through Various School Grades 



tfl 



Grade 3d 



4th 



M\sM 

5th 



rffirffi ll—i 



-crLUL 



6tb 



7th 



H.S. 



found that the most common error in the first grade is 
the repetition and that this rapidly decreases in the latter 
portion of this year. There is also a considerable decrease of 
this type of error in the second grade and in the early part of the 
third grade. The apparent discrepancy in these results and 

Diagram IV 
Showing Distribution of Mispronunciations through Various School Grades 



T rffl 


c£ 



i 



Grade ,3 d 



4th 



5th 



6th 



7 th 



H.S. 



those of McLeod maybe due to the fact that McLeod's data 
were procured by means of a test in which there was much 



60 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

variation in the difficulty of the passages read, while the writer's 
results were compiled by listening to children read in their 
daily reading classes. 

In the early periods of a child's training, repetitions may re- 
sult from dissatisfaction with his own results. This may in- 
dicate a lack of understanding of the passages repeated or a 
failure to give proper expression to it. In other cases, the reader 
may pause on account of an unfamiliar word, and after the word 
is comprehended he may repeat certain words closely related 
to it in order that there may be no break in the reading. 

If repetitions are found to any great extent in the upper 
grades, it is probable that the habit of repeating has been carried 
over from early periods of learning. This explanation would 
not apply, however, in the case of very poor readers in the upper 
grades. 

Omissions. This type of error seems to be of two kinds. 
First, words which are absolutely essential to the meaning are 
omitted, and second, words which play a secondary part in the 
meaning are left out. The former usually occurs in very poor 
reading, while the latter may occur in either good or poor read- 
ing. In the former case, the understanding of the reader is so 
poor that the omission makes no difference in his understanding; 
while in the case of the good reader, omissions may mean that 
he already has the general meaning of the passage in mind, and 
so leaves out certain modifiers or other expressions not essential 
to the meaning. 

Insertions. A study of a limited number of insertions reveals 
two types of such errors. First, there are those which have no 
relation to the material read, and second, there are those which 
make perfect sense. The former may be due to lapses of atten- 
tion, so that material from the margin of the field of conscious- 
ness distracts the attention or in some cases such insertions 
may be made because the child under the pressure of the oc- 
casion continues to say something. The second form of inser- 
tion is usually a word which might modify some word in the 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 61 

passage being read, and so represents the child's addition to 
the author's thought. The imagination of children is very 
active, and they often add to a story in which they are inter- 
ested. 

Mispronunciations. These may be divided into two general 
classes. First, minor mispronunciations, which are of such a 
nature that the correct word can be recognized in the word as 
pronounced; and second, gross mispronunciations, in which no 
attempt is made at pronunciation or where the pronunciation is 
so poor that it becomes very evident that the reader has no 
knowledge of the work. Pronunciation under these circum- 
stances may be merely a guess. The first type of error is due 
to many different causes. It may be caused by the wrong 
sounding of a letter or syllable; it is also true that environ- 
mental conditions make for errors in accent, and promote cer- 
tain dialects. In other instances, the environment in which 
the child lives may account for such mistakes as "pore" for 
"poor." In a few cases mispronunciation may be due to speech 
defects. Many other mispronunciations are due to the child's 
lack of experience with language. He is constantly adding new 
words to his vocabulary, and it is to be expected that difficulties 
and confusion will arise in his mind. A type of mispronunci- 
ation which is due to an habitual lack of analysis of words is 
often found. The writer knows a well-educated man who never 
noted until a short time ago the difference between the two 
words "okra," a plant, and "ocher," an ingredient of paint. 
Such carelessness in dealing with simple words can be due only 
to habitual lack of analysis of words. 

Substitutions. A consideration of substitutions shows at 
least two classes. First, there are those substitutions which 
are difficult to explain, where the word substituted does not 
make sense, and bears no relation to the remainder of the sen- 
tence. This type is found in poor reading, and as the child's 
reading improves, such mistakes are decreased. Certain 
children have difficulty with short words. A child known to 



62 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

the writer continually said "at" for "by," "on" for "in," etc. 
Such substitutions might be due to fluctuations of attention or 
to a subjective type of reading. 

The second type of substitutions occurs when synonyms are 
used for the words in the texts. Such errors do not change the 
meaning in any great degree and indicate that the child is read- 
ing from memory or from the context. 

The foregoing treatment of errors in oral reading must be 
considered as tentative, since it is based upon only a few cases. 
From the standpoint of diagnosis, it is very important that the 
psychology of the different types of errors be worked out in 
detail. 

Results from Vocabulary Tests. Haggerty (lo) has given 
median scores for the Thorndike visual vocabulary test, as 
shown in Table V. This table indicates a continuous increase 

Table V 
Showing Standards for Thorndike's Visual Vocabulary Tests, by Haggerty 



Grade 
Score 



3 

4.0 



4 
5.26 



6.00 



6 
6.66 



7 I 8 

7.2Q 7.91 



through the grades. The increase for grade four is greater than 
that of any other grade. This is probably due to the fact that 
the progress of the pupil in reading up to this time^JJas as its^ 
basis a knowledge of individual words. Later, \his problem^ 
are much more of an interpretative character than in t-his earlier 
period. 

This same author has shown also that there is a high cor- 
relation between the results of the visual vocabulary test and 
the test for the understanding of sentences in the third and 
fourth grades, but that the correlation is very small above the 
fourth grade. This probably means that in the early grades 
the child's reading depends upon his knowledge of individual 
words. While he is in these grades, he is still in the process 
of making his recognition of words automatic. When he reaches 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 63 

the later grades, this automatism has been acquired, and the 
reading is concerned with units larger than words. 

Another factor which enters into the knowledge of words is 
the number of times that a child has come in contact with any 
single word. If a word functions in reading, it must at least 
be vaguely recognized. The number of repetitions required 
for ready recognition is a factor which varies from child to child 
and from word to word. Haggerty has pointed out that knowl- 
edge of words exists on three levels. They may be well known, 
barely known, or vaguely recognized. He gives also certain factors 
which determine the difficulty of words. These are as follows: 

Size of word, shape of word, mental content which attaches to the word, 
relation which a word bears to the speaking vocabulary of the child, relation 
to one's interests, lapse of time since the word was last seen, kind of type, 
and the place on the page where the child is accustomed to see the word. 

Quality of Oral Reading 

But Httle progress has been made in the investigation of this 
phase of oral reading ability. A study made by the writer, in 
which children were graded upon such points as pitch of voice, 
poise, etc., shows that in very few cases can high grades be 
given. This may indicate that these elements are neglected in 
teaching. Teachers are interested in the correct pronunciation 
of words and in correct interpretation of thought, but not in the 
elements of the reading process indicated above. 

Gray (4) reports that he has found a high correlation be- 
tween quality of oral reading and rate. From this he concludes 
that it is not necessary to deal with quality. Though this may 
be true, problems for diagnosis still remain, because there are 
always individual pupils in whom the relation as pointed out 
by Gray does not exist. Diagnosis requires some definite plan 
for evaluating the factors which enter into the quality of oral 
reading. Some of these elements are emotional in character 
and others have a motor background. From this standpoint, 
the study of this phase of reading becomes highly important. 



64 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Rate and Comprehension 

Since the methods for deahng with these two points are very 
similar, they may be considered together. If a body of data 
which bears upon either of these points is collected, it is usually 
put into the form of a distribution curve for study and con- 
sideration. Such a curve is seen in Diagram V. In dealing 
with a curve of this type, two factors must be kept in mind. 
The first of these is the norm of performance, and the second 
is the spread or range of ability. 

Norm of Performance. In reading work, this problem has 
usually been dealt with by determining the average or the 
median. As an illustration of this, Table III may be used. 
Such a table shows the variation of the norm for the different 
grades, and for the same grade taught under different conditions. 

Many teachers have been confused in the consideration of the 
term " norm." Some have thought of it as the normal individual, 
while others have thought of it as the average individual. As 
a matter of fact, the method of calculating the median or aver- 
age is such that in most cases there are no individual pupils who 
are represented by the units expressed in the average or median. 
It is much better to think of the norm as a measure of attain- 
ment. In this way it becomes the central attainment of a class 
or grade. 

Uses of the Norm. Such data can be used by the super- 
intendent or supervisor in comparing one system of schools with 
another, or one grade with another, or one teacher with another. 
No stronger argument can be brought before a body of teachers, 
in case it is desired to focus their attention upon reading as a 
subject, or upon certain phases of it which have been over- 
emphasized or underemphasized. Many ideas or theories may 
be held in regard to the conditions which prevail in a system of 
schools; but if the concrete evidence can be presented, most 
of the opinions vanish, and the problem becomes one of inter- 
preting the situation as shown by the data. Another use of the 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 



65 



norm is that it gives to the teacher her aims in quantitative 
terms. Usually the aims of teaching are thought of qualita- 
tively or in the most general quantitative terms, such as pages 

Diagram V 

Surface of Frequency Representing the Distribution of Ability in Comprehen- 
sion. This is an Example of a Very Unsatisfactory Condition. There are Five 
Modes. The Group is not a Compact One, as Regards Comprehension, 
by Brown 



^^-t 



f 



5 10 IS 29 25 30 JS 49 45 io 55 60 6s 30 7S 80 8s 90 9S 100 

or chapters. The norm sets forth the work of a grade in ob- 
jective terms, and if tests are given from time to time it is pos- 
sible for the teacher to know how nearly her work is approaching 
her aim. Still another use of the standard is to be found in 
diagnosis. This function is the location of those pupils whose 



66 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Table VI 
Showing Median Scores for Kelly Silent Reading Tests, by Kelly 



Grade 




III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


First-class cities 
in Kansas 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


4-3 
1873 


8.8 
2017 


13 I 
1819 


13-8 
1590 


16. 1 
1546 


19.7 
1334 


Second-class 
cities in 
Kansas 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


5-9 
966 


9-7 
1067 


143 
994 


143 
1024 


17-3 
613 


20.6 
596 


Third-class 
cities in 
Kansas 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


4.6 
373 


8.2 
524 


II. 8 
471 


12.. •^ 
518 


14.0 
352 


20.6 
560 


Kansas total 


Median 


4.9 


9.0 


13-4 


13-7 


16. 1 


20.1 


Iowa total 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


6.2 
2371 


9-S 
2940 


14.6 
269s 


14.8 
2597 


17.7 
2143 


20.6 
1819 


Total from far- 
western cities 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


6.1 

2282 


10.6 
2509 


14.4 
2643 


15.0 
2673 


18.0 
2508 


20.6 

2075 


Thirty- five one- 
room schools 
in Kansas 


Median 


3-0 


7.0 


8.7 


II. 8 


II .0 


15-9 


Cities in 
southern 
states 


Median 
Number of 
Children 


4-7 
686 


8.4 
723 


12.3 
702 


II. 8 
602 


15-4 
498 


19.2 
350 



deficiencies are to be diagnosed. Seldom, if ever, will it be neces- 
sary to deal from this standpoint with children who are above 
or only slightly below the standard. Only those who are 
markedly below the norm need be considered. Experience has 
shown that the judgment of teachers cannot always be relied 
upon in the selection of pupils for this purpose. 

Spread of Reading Ability. In dealing with a class of children 
it is always found that their ability has a certain range. The 
mean for the class may be satisfactory, but the problem of the 
individual pupil still exists. If a child stands so many units 
above the norm, it may be well to give him certain outside work 
to do in his reading preparation; while if another stood still 
higher, it might be best to promote him to the next grade. 
Again, certain other pupils who may be only slightly above the 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 



67 



mean should be given the regular instructions of the class. The 
same type of problem may also be encountered with respect to 
the pupils below the norm, for there are those who should be 
sent back to the grade below, others who need individual at- 
tention, and still others for whom the regular instruction will 
be adequate. The superintendent encounters the same problem 
in dealing with different grades or schools as a whole. Before 
the measurement of reading ability is complete, there must be 
norms for variations in attainments as well as norms for degrees 
of attainments. Such norms have been established by Kelly 
(23) in terms of medians. When a considerable range is found 
in any class, there is a definite problem for the teacher and the 
supervisor. In certain cases, it may be necessary to re-grade 
the class; while in other instances, it may be necessary to give 
attention to the instruction. 

Overlapping of Grades. The problem of the range of reading 
ability takes still another form. This may be spoken of as the 
overlapping of grades. This problem has been discussed at 
some length by Haggerty (11). Some of his results are shown 
in Diagram VI. 

Diagram VI 

Understanding of Sentences. Showing Overlapping in Grades 4, 6, and 8 in 
One City, by Haggerty 



"1 














j 















This diagram shows results for the fourth, sixth, and eighth 
grades. These data indicate that, while the percentages vary 
from grade to grade, each grade has pupils in each group, except 
A, where only pupils of grade four appear. Haggerty discusses 



68 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

this from the standpoint of grading. His argument is that the 
pupils are poorly graded, and that certain ones should be pro- 
moted to a higher grade and others should be put back into a 
lower grade. Such procedure may solve the problem for the 
bright child, and it may be that certain of the poor students 
need to go back and do more of the same type of work as they 
have done earlier; but it is altogether probable that certain 
others need to do a different type of work, which can be de- 
termined only after a careful study of their particular cases has 
been made. 

This problem has also been studied very carefully by Kruse 
(19). This writer criticizes very severely the use of single tests 
as a measure of overlapping. Some of his conclusions are given 
in the following quotations: 

Summarizing, we may say that the amount of overlapping measured by 
a single test is reduced appreciably when measured by a composite of a num- 
ber of tests of the same trait, there being a direct relation between the num- 
ber of tests entering into the composite and the amount of reduction. 
Moreover, when a further grouping of scores is made by recombining these 
composites of single tests in a given trait into a gross composite representa- 
tive of abihty in a more complex trait, as, for example, control of the ver- 
nacular as exemplified in our English composite of 22 tests, the amount of 
overlapping is appreciably reduced. Extending this grouping so as to in- 
clude a composite of results from tests of a still different trait, such as arith- 
metic, we get still more reduction of the overlapping in this complex, more 
nearly representative of school abihty. 

Kruse's discussion places the problem of the overlapping of 
grades in an entirely different light, and it is evident that Hag- 
gerty's results which were based upon single tests need to be 
scrutinized very carefully before they are used as a basis for 
procedure. However, it is difficult to see that Kruse's results 
shed any new Hght upon the problems of diagnosis, because, 
when his methods are used, the problem of the individual pupil 
yet remains. 

Progress through Grades. Another form in which results for 
comprehension or rate may be arranged is shown in Diagram 



i 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 



69 



VII, taken from Gray's (9) results. The vertical lines repre- 
sent the different school grades, and the height of these lines in- 
dicates the scores made. Such curves show progress through 
the several school grades. Viewed from this standpoint very 

Diagram VII 

Showing Average Scores in Oral Reading for Girls and Boys in Each of the 
Eight Grades, by Gray 




Average all glrla ••• 

Average all pti|>lla ■■-■wmi 
Average all bOfA —' •»'<^ 

marked progress is to be noted from the first to the second grade 
and a very gradual increase from that point through the eighth 
grade. This curve has the form of most learning curves and 
corresponds to the results reported by most investigators in 
reading. Many of the discussions of the later chapters will 
have to do with the factors which determine advancement in 
reading. 



70 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Relations between Rate and Comprehension 

Another problem which has been investigated by means of 
tests is the relation which exists between rate and comprehen- 
sion. The old idea was that the maxim, ''slow and sure," 
should be heeded in teaching children to read. In discussing 
this point Judd (15) says that good readers are usually not slow 
and poor readers are usually not fast. Haggerty (11) may be 
quoted upon the same topic as follows: 

We now know perfectly well that rapid work may be more accurate than 
slow work, that many of the most accurate workers are the most rapid, that 
many of the slow ones are the most inaccurate, and that some are made 
more (inaccurate by being slowed down, and that some are made more ac- 
curate by being speeded up. 

He explains this in terms of attention by saying that the most 
effective speed is that at which attention is least dispersed. 

In dealing with the same problem, Gray (9) divided a number 
of children into various groups upon the basis of their records 
in his tests as to speed and quality. Diagram VIII presents nine 
degrees in which these two factors may be combined and shows 
the per cent in each group. In explaining the causes which 
give rise to such a situation, Gray emphasizes the fact that not 
sufficient time had been given to interpretation in the teaching 
of reading in the school system where these conditions prevailed. 
This is doubtless true, and if the instruction had been changed 
there would have been a shifting toward the upper groups. 
However, after such changes have been made there would still 
remain a certain number of pupils in each of the classes. To 
the teacher in charge, the same number and kinds of problems 
remain, and her success depends, in a degree, upon her ability 
to solve these various problems. 

If the discussion of the results set forth in this diagram be 
carried further, it will be noticed that Group A is satisfactory 
from the standpoint of standards usually set by the school. 
However, if this group is considered as a superior group, then 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 



71 



methods for dealing with it become a problem. In Groups D and 
G, rapid speed is combined in the first case with medium quality, 
and in the second case with poor quality. The fact that these 
pupils read rapidly shows clearly that they are able to employ 
certain factors which go to make up a high grade of reading 
ability, and leads to the conclusion that probably training has 

Diagram VIII 

Showing Percentage of i8ji Cleveland Pupils Found in Each of Nine 
Groups in Speed and Quality in Silent Reading, by Gray 





A 


B 


C 








Mjt 


iijf 


e^ 








Bapld Speed and 
Good ftuflUly 


Uedluffl Speed bnfi 
Good Quality 


Slow speed and 
Good Quellty 








D 


E 


F 






12* 


lit 


J0« 






Popia Speed anil 
KedMn. ausuty 


Medlua Speed ami 
•tedium duality 


Slo» SpeeJ and 
Uedluo Quality 








G 


M 


I 








of. 


n% 


16* 








Ripltl Speed and 
Poor Quality 


Nedlur Spsad ena 
Poor ftuallly 


£lo* Speed and 
Poor Quality 





failed to develop in the proper manner the other factors which 
make for efficient reading. The same point may be made in 
regard to Groups B and C. Here those factors which make for 
comprehension are employed in an effective manner. It may 
be argued that if the factors which make for rate were better 
understood, training would increase the efficiency of the pupils 
in these groups. Again, the same argument will apply in a less 
degree to Groups F and H. Group E represents the average 
individual. Special drill may be of some help here. Group I 
represents those pupils who lack native ability. The problem 
of diagnosis becomes, then, one of determining those factors 



72 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

which enter into rate and quality, and the teacher who deals 
with such a situation successfully must deal with it from this 
standpoint. 

Other investigators have also been interested in the problem 
just discussed. King (i8) has reported evidence from college 
students to show that there is little, if any, relation between 
speed and accuracy. He has worked out correlation coefficients 
to show that the relation is a negative one. His methods of 
measurement and the material which he uses are so different 
from those employed by Judd, Gray, and Haggerty that it is 
doubtful whether a comparison between the results of the 
different investigators is justified. 

From the standpoint of diagnosis, many problems with re- 
spect to the relation which exists between rate and compre- 
hension remain for consideration. Evidently, a complete 
explanation of a distribution as shown in Diagram IX cannot 
be given in terms of instruction. Some of these difiiculties are 
evidently individual matters and must be treated as such. 

Relations between Silent and Oral Reading 

Another important problem which has been revealed by 
testing is the relation which exists between oral and silent read- 
ing. The results of all investigators have shown that the rate 
in silent reading is greater than that in oral reading. This is 
due to the fact that the vocal movements required in oral read- 
ing are present in such a degree as to retard rate. 

Pintner (25) has studied comprehension which follows both 
oral and silent reading in the fourth grade. His results show 
that fifteen children out of twenty-three do better in compre- 
hension based upon silent reading than they do in comprehension 
based upon oral reading. Of the twenty-three children studied, 
six did better after the oral reading, and two did as well in one 
case as in the other. The average percentage of points in the 
interpretation for the whole class was greater for silent 
reading. 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 73 

Mead (21) has studied the same problem with sixth-grade 
pupils. He finds that each class tested reproduced more points 
after the silent method of reading than after the oral method. 
Mead's results do not give data as to individuals, but it cannot 
be assumed that each child did better in silent than in oral 
reading. This leaves still the problem of determining why cer- 
tain pupils continue to do better by oral methods, when for most 
children the silent method is more effective. Evidently, the 
two types of reading involved different methods of interpreta- 
tion. The oral method is taught first, and certain children 
apparently are never able to change to the methods of silent 
reading. 

Pintner and Gilliland (26) have extended the scope of Pintner's 
earlier study of fourth-grade children. This later study shows 
that college students and high school pupils read faster silently 
than orally. The other grades show no advantage for silent 
reading. The averages are so nearly equal that it may be said 
they read as fast by one method as by the other. In com- 
prehension, there is little difference to be seen in the results. 
The children seem to do as well one way as the other. From 
these results, the authors conclude as follows: 

It does not seem to make much difference whether a child in the third 
grade reads aloud or silently. He gets about the same number of ideas per 
second either way. As we progress through the grades and up into college 
v/e find that it takes comparatively longer and longer for reading aloud and 
this increased time may result in an increase in the number of ideas repro- 
duced. But this number of ideas gained is not nearly commensurate with 
the extra time expended. The silent reading of the adult is quicker than 
the oral reading and, at the same time, the number of ideas remembered is 
slightly greater, certainly much greater per unit of time. Thus it would 
appear that silent reading is, undoubtedly, the more economical besides 
being the method best adapted to the ordinary activities of life, since the 
vast majority of our reading is silent. 

From the standpoint of diagnosis, the comparison of silent 
and oral reading ability in an individual pupil is an important 
matter. The two types of reading evidently involve different 



74 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

methods of interpretation, and an efficient reader must be able 
to change from one method to the other as occasion demands. 
Later chapters will reveal in more detail differences between the 
two types of reading, and the difficulties which attach to a 
transfer from one method to the other. 

Diagnosis of Reading Ability Based upon Tests 

Analysis. The treatment of tests, which has just been com- 
pleted, shows the following elements in reading ability: (i) 
knowledge of words, both isolated and in context, (2) rate of 
reading, (3) quality of oral reading, (4) comprehension in silent 
reading. 

These four elements will serve as a basis for diagnosis as 
proposed in this treatise. The general plan will be to collect 
data upon these different phases of reading ability by means of 
tests previously discussed. The norms which have already 
been determined will make it possible to tell the standing of any 
child upon all the phases of reading mentioned above, except 
the third. 

In dealing with these elements of reading, investigators have 
used, in most cases, large numbers of subjects. Such work is 
necessarily lacking in detail and analytic study. Therefore, it 
is true that most of the problems brought to light cannot have 
fundamental explanations given for them. It is the purpose of 
the next three chapters to consider certain phases of reading 
ability which have been studied, for the most part, by means of 
laboratory methods. These methods are usually painstaking 
and detailed. Hence, they involve but few subjects. This 
allows the analysis of reading ability to be carried out in much 
more detail, and includes certain factors which are fundamental 
to the various phases of reading, as just discussed. 

Tests to be Employed in Diagnosis. Another important ele- 
ment in diagnosis has to do with methods and means for measure- 
ment. The nature of reading is so complex that no single test 
will answer for any adequate or complete diagnosis. It becomes 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 75 

a matter, then, of selecting a series of tests from those which 
are available. In making such a selection, the investigator must 
bear in mind that no reading test has been devised especially 
for the purpose of diagnosis. In other subjects, certain tests 
have appeared which are designated as diagnostic tests; but, so 
far, this has not been true in reading. 

For testing a knowledge of individual words, the Haggerty 
test for oral vocabulary or the Thorndike test for visual vocabu- 
lary may be used. To test ability to use words in context, 
Gray's oral reading scale seems best. This latter test offers 
opportunity for the study of errors and of rate. 

No method for measuring the quality of oral reading has been 
standardized; hence any data which are collected upon this 
phase of reading will need to be obtained by means of ob- 
servation. 

The selection of a test for the measurement of the different 
phases of silent reading is a difficult matter. In fact, no single 
test wiU meet all the conditions. It seerns that Monroe's test 
comes nearer fulfilling the requirements than any other. This 
test evaluates comprehension on different levels and gives a 
separate score for both rate and comprehension. It makes use 
of both the factual and puzzle types of questions and is very 
easy to administer. In addition to this test, it may be neces- 
sary, in some cases, to give a test based upon reproduction. If 
this is required, in order to make the diagnosis more complete, 
it will be found that Starch's test can be used to good advantage. 
Besides this, the diagnosis of a few children may require still 
other tests. Among these are skimming tests, speed tests, and 
direction tests. 

To summarize, the tests to be used for diagnosis deal with 
the oral reading ability of children from only the standpoint of 
the pronunciation of words. Tests are provided for estimating 
the ability of the child in dealing with words both in isolation 
and in context. The ability of pupils to use words in context 
is considered both as to rate and as to the number and nature of 



76 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

errors. In silent reading, both rate and comprehension are 
emphasized. The latter element is dealt with from various 
standpoints and on various levels. 

Interpretation. The last element of diagnosis is interpre- 
tation. The previous discussion of results has given a basis 
for this. Two points which are of very great importance in this 
connection are the relations which exist between rate and com- 
prehension, and the differences which are to be found between 
oral and silent reading. A thorough understanding of these 
two problems is absolutely necessary if progress is to be made in 
interpretation. Later chapters will throw more light on this 
phase of the problem. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. What elements in reading ability have not been measured thus far? 

2. What suggestions can you give on the measurement of the quahty 
of oral reading? 

3. What elements and conditions in the giving of reading tests make 
for inaccuracies? 

4. To what extent would you let the children know the results of a test 
given to their class? What advantage would be gained? 

5. If you take the point of view that they should know the results, how 
would you present such material to them? 

6. Is speed a constant quantity in silent reading for the same pupil, or 
will it vary with different types of material, as poetry, novel, scientific prose, 
etc.? What other conditions will make it vary? 

7. Why should rapid reading be urged? 

8. Would a knowledge of the extent of the vocabulary of the pupils in 
your class be of benefit to you? If so, how? 

9. Would a compilation of tests which would allow a survey of the class 
at the beginning of the year, and so determine individual needs, be of service 
to you? How would you use such material? 

10. What changes have taken place during the last ten years in the em- 
phasis upon various problems in the teaching of reading? 

11. What objections are there to requiring a certain minimum arriount 
of material to be read by each child in a grade before promotion? 

12. Make a list of five aims for instruction in reading in a particular 
school grade. To what extent are these aims quantitative and to what ex- 
tent quaUtative? 



I 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 77 

13. What differences do you notice in your classes with respect to vocabu- 
laries used by different children? Do these differences lead to differences in 
instruction? If not, why so? 

14. Are there any aims in reading instruction which cannot be stated in 
quantitative terms? If so, make a Hst of such. 

15. Make a hst of one hundred errors in oral reading. Which type of 
error is most frequent? Classify the errors as to their causes. After this is 
done, how many out of the one hundred need serious consideration from the 
standpoint of remedial measures? 

Bibliography 

1. Breed, F. S. A Comparison of Two Methods of Measuring Compre- 

hension in Reading. Sch. and Soc, 1918, 7, 266-270. 

2. Brown, H. A. The Measurement of the Ability to Read. Concord, N. H. 

New Hampshire Department of Pubhc Instruction, Bureau of Re- 
search, Bulletin No. i, 1916. Pp. 57. 

3. Burgess, M. A. The Measurement of Silent Reading. New York, 

Russell Sage Foundation. 1921. Pp. 163. 

4. Co-operative Study of Reading in Sixteen Cities of Indiana. Bloomington, 

Indiana. Bureau of the Co-operative Research, Indiana University, 
School of Education. 1918. Pp. 43. 

5. Courtis, S. A., Courtis Standard Tests, Silent Reading, Test No. 2, 

Detroit, Mich. 

6. Courtis, S. A., The Gary Public Schools. Measurement of Classroom 

Products. New York, General Education Board. 1919. Pp. xxii-|- 
532. 

7. Fordyce, C. A Scale for Measuring Achievements in Reading. The 

University Publishing Co., Lincoln, Neb. 

8. Gray, C. T., Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited Through Tests and 

Laboratory Experiments. (Supp. Educ. Monog., Vol. I, No. 5.) 
Chicago, University of Chicago Press. 191 7. Pp. xiv -j- 196. 

9. Gray, W. S., Studies of Elementary School Reading through Standardized 

Tests. (Supp. Educ. Monog., Vol. I, No. i.) Chicago, University of 
Chicago Press. 1917. Pp. viii + 157. 

10. Haggerty, M. E., Scales for Reading Vocabulary of Primary Children. 

Elem. Sch. Jl., 1916, 17, 106-115. 

11. Haggerty, M. E., The Ability to Read: Its Measurement, and Some Fac- 

tors Conditioning It. Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana University 
Studies, No. 34. 1917. Pp. 63. 

12. Haggerty, M. E. and Haggerty, L. C. Reading Examination. Sigma 

3 for Grades 5-12. Chicago, World Book Co., 1920. 



78 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

13. Haggerty, M. E. and Noonan, M. E., Achievement Examination in 

Reading, Sigma i, for Grades 1-3. Chicago, World Book Co., 1920. 

14. Jones, R. G., Jones' Scale for Teaching and Testing Elementary Read- 

ing. Rockford, Ilhnois. 

15. Judd, C. H., Measuring the Work of the Public Schools. Cleveland, Ohio, 

The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation. 1916. Pp. 
124-161. 

16. Kallom, A. W., Reproduction as a Measure of Reading Ability. //. 

Educ. Res., 1920, i, 359-368. 

17. Kelley, F. J., The Kansas Silent Reading Test. Jl. Educ. Psy., 1916, 7, 

63-80. 

18. King, I. A Comparison of Slow and Rapid Readers. Sch. and Soc, 1916, 

4, 830-834. 
Comparison of the Efficiency of Slow and Rapid Readers. Sch. and 
Soc, 191 7, 6, 203-204. 

19. Kruse, Paul J., The Overlapping of Attainments in Certain Sixth, Seventh 

and Eighth Grades (Col. Cont. to Ed. No. 92). New York, Columbia 
University. 1918. Pp. 91. 

20. McLeod, L. S., Influence of Increasing Difficulty of Reading Material 

upon Rate, Errors, and Comprehension in Oral Reading. Elem. Sch. 
JL, 1918, 18, 523-532. 

21. Mead, Cyrus D., Silent Reading vs. Oral Reading with One Hundred 

Sixth Grade Pupils. Jl. Educ. Psy., 1915, 6, 345-348. 

22. Monroe, W. S., Monroe's Standardized Silent Reading Tests. //. Educ. 

Psy., 1918, 9, 363-312. 

23. Monroe, W. S., DeVoss, J. C, and Kelly, F. J., Educational Tests and 

Measurements. Chicago, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1918. Pp. xx + 

309- 

24. Otis, A. S., Considerations Concerning the Making of a Scale for the 

Measurement of Reading. Ped. Sent., 1916, 23, 528-549. 

25. Pintner, R., Oral and Silent Reading of Fourth Grade Pupils. Jl. Educ. 

Psy., 1913, 4- 333-337- 

26. Pintner, R., and Gilliland, A. R., Oral and Silent Reading. //. Educ. 

Psy., 1916, 7, 201-212. 

27. Pintner, R., and Toops, H. A., A Revised Direction Test. Jl. Educ. 

Psy., 1918, 9, 123-142. 

28. Pressy, L. C. and Skeel, H. U., A Group Test for Measuring Reading 

Vocabulary in the ist Grade. Elem. Sch. JL, 1920, 21, 304-309. 

29. Price, E. D., Practical Oral Reading Test, Enid, Oklahoma. 

30. Richards, A. M., and Davidson, P. E., Correlations of Single Measures 

of Some Representative Reading Tests. Sch. and Soc, 1916, 4, 
375-377- 



SURVEY OF RESULTS OF TESTS 79 

31. Starch, D., The Measurement of EfSciency in Reading. //. Educ. Psy., 

1915, 6, 1-24. 

32. Starch, D., The Reliability of Reading Tests. Sch. and Soc, 1918, 8, 

86-90. 

SS- Thorndike, E. L., Reading as Reasoning: A Study of Mistakes in Para- 
graph Reading. //. Educ. Psy., 1917, 8, 323-332. 

34. Thorndike, E. L., Measurement of Achievement in Reading; Word 
Knowledge. Teh. Col. Rec, 1916, 17, 430-454. 

25- Thorndike, E. L., The Measurement of Ability in Reading. Teh. Col. 
Rec., 1914, 15, 207-277. 

An Improved Scale for Measuring Ability in Reading. Tck. Col. Rec, 
1915, 16, 445-467; 1916, 17, 40-67. 



B. THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY FROM 
THE STANDPOINT OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 




CHAPTER IV 
QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 

The term " perception " is used in this chapter in a restricted 
meaning. For our present purpose it designates the visual per- 
ception of the printed page. 

However, after perception is limited in this manner it is still 
a highly complex process, and no less than thirteen problems, 
some of which have subsidiary points, have been attacked by 
different investigators. These may be enumerated under three 
general heads, as follows: 

I. The Quantitative Phases of Perception 

A. Physiological elements 

B. Span of perception 

C. Unit of perception 

D. Variations in span of perception for different school 

grades 

E. The effect of arrangement upon the span of perception 

F. Relation of the span of perception to reading ability 

G. The effect of practice upon the span of perception 
n. The QuaHtative Phases of Perception 

A . Kinds of printing type 

B. Size of print 

C. Letters in their relation to perception 

1. Legibility of 

2. Form of 

D. Words in their relation to perception 

E. The length of lines in relation to perception 

HI. Methods of Perceiving Words 

80 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 81 

Each of the above problems is dual m its nature. First, it 
in\-olves a physiological problem concerned with the stimula- 
tion of the retina of the eye by printed characters. Second, it 
comprises those mental operations which give meaning to these 
printed forms. The study of the first of these problems was 
undertaken early by physiologists. Out of these physiological 
studies there developed researches by psychologists upon the 
mental processes involved in perception. 

The early work upon perception was not done from the stand- 
point of reading. The physiologists were interested only in the 
physiological problems of \isual perception, and made no at- 
tempt to relate their results to reading abihty. In the same way, 
the early psychologists were interested only in the general prob- 
lems of perception, and were not concerned vdih perception as 
it relates to reading. 

The first phase of the problem suggested in the title of this 
chapter is concerned with the work of some of the early physiolo- 
gists. Plateau (7,2) observed that it requires a period of time 
for the complete formation of an impression produced by Hght. 
His problem was concerned v,-ith the length of time that is neces- 
sary' for Hght to fall upon the retina in order that sight may take 
place. Later, Breucke (7) found this time to be .1S6 seconds. 
Exner (17) worked upon the same problem with elaborate and 
compHcated apparatus. He showed that the time may vary 
from .119 to .2S7 seconds. He showed, further, that this de- 
crease in time is subject to a law. The law which he enunciated 
is as follows : ' The length of the period of the stimulus decreases 
in an arithmetical series as the intensity of the light increases in 
geometrical progression." 

Baxt (3) attacked the problem in a slightly different manner. 
He first exposed letters and curves, and soon afterward the 
retina was exposed to a bright light. He found that if the time 
between the exposures of the words and curves and the bright 
hght was made short enough it was impossible to recognize the 
words. He then proceeded to determine the length of the period 



82 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

which would allow the recognition of the words and curves and 
took this as the time required for the perception of these objects. 
The observations recorded above are probably sufficient to show 
the nature of this type of work. 

The relation of such results to reading ability has not been 
fully established. It is possible that one person may read more 
rapidly than another because of differences in these physiological 
processes, but such a relation has not been taken into considera- 
tion in accounting for variations in reading ability. 

Other physiological problems which have been investigated 
recently involve the range of distinct vision and visual defects. 

Range of Distinct Vision as it Relates to Perception. The ques- 
tion raised by this topic is whether there are any physiological 
limits to perception. If one perceives a short sentence at one 
time and a letter at another time, the sentence necessitates 
the stimulation of a larger proportion of the retina than is re- 
quired in the case of a single letter. If it is possible for more 
material to be interpreted in a single act of perception than can 
be impressed upon the retina, then reading has a physiological 
limit. If this is true, a teacher should have some means of deter- 
mining when such a limit is reached, for further training is use- 
less. 

The first investigator to deal directly with this problem was 
Ruediger (35). He used a short exposure apparatus, in which 
the exposure was made by a falling body. In his exposures he 
made use of two letters only. These were "u" and "n." In 
that part of the experiment which is of interest in this chapter, 
the letters were printed on cards, either to the right or to the left 
of a central point, thus : 

u 



These distances varied from ten milHmeters to forty millimeters. 
Ruediger concludes from these experiments that few, if any, 
readers use their full range of vision while they are reading. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 83 

Dockeray (13) was the next author to become interested in 
this problem. His method was much the same as that of Rue- 
diger, except that he made use of all of the letters of the alphabet. 
He found that the span of distinct vision for letters in ten point 
type at a distance of thirty -five centimeters from the eyes is from 
twenty millimeters to twenty-two millimeters on either side of 
the fixation point. This means that all material interpreted in 
any reading act comes within the field of distinct vision. 

The writer (22) investigated fourteen pupils in various school 
grades with respect to the same point. Some of these were good 
readers and others were poor readers. The methods used corre- 
sponded closely to those employed by Ruediger. It was im- 
possible to see that the results of these experiments explained in 
any way the different abilities as found in the group. 

Defects of Vision as Related to Perception. Though there are 
extreme types of defects, which seriously influence the reading 
activity, experiments have shown that minor defects have httle 
or no effect upon it. The extreme defects are rather uncommon, 
and call for the services of a specialist. On the other hand, slight 
defects of vision are very common, but their effect upon reading 
ability is very slight. This should not be taken to mean that 
defects of vision are not to be corrected, because with proper 
glasses the child may be able to do the same amount of reading 
with a much less expenditure of energy. The point to be derived 
from these later physiological experiments is that reading ability 
is not limited either by the range of distinct vision or by slight 
defects in vision. 

The Span of Perception. In a consideration of the mental 
phases of perception one of the important problems is concerned 
with the amount of material which may be comprehended in a 
single act of perception. In order to understand the term " span 
of perception " more thoroughly, it is well to think of perception 
as a process which goes on for a period of time. If one reads a 
page of printed material, there is no doubt that perception takes 
place. If the time required for reading the page be decreased 



84 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



until it is very short, the amount of material perceived is very 
small. Finally, the time may be made so short that perception 
cannot take place and, as a result, nothing is perceived. 

The problem indicated in the chapter heading, then, is con- 
cerned with the amount of material which can be perceived in a 




Fig. I 

Showing One Form of the Tachistoscope 

ABC compartments k crank 

abed large lights L lens and shutter 

efgh small lights M ground glass 

/ container for reading material N visor 



single act of perception. In the approach to this problem, it is 
necessary that the time be very much reduced, because other- 
wise there is opportunity for a succession of perceptive acts 
rather than a single one. It is the single act of perception which 
is of interest at this time. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 85 

This problem is most often attacked by means of the tachisto- 
scope, or short-exposure apparatus. This is used to control the 
conditions under which perception takes place. It was invented 
by Helniholtz (26) about 1870, and since that time many forms 
have been used. One form of the short-exposure apparatus as 
seen in Figure i^ is here briefly described. It consists of three 
chambers, A , B, and C. Chamber A has in it four lights, a, b, 
c, d, which illuminate the material to be exposed. This material 
is printed on a long strip of paper which is mounted in the box 
at /, as a film would be placed in a camera. By turning the crank 
at k, the investigator brings into place at an opening in the front 
of the box the material to be exposed. The lens L focuses this 
material on the ground glass M, when the shutter in which the 
lens is mounted is open. The chamber B is lighted by four small 
lights, e, f, g, and h, while the chamber C is dark at all times. 
The subject makes his observation through the visor at N. If 
the shutter at L is open, he sees the material at M. If the shutter 
is closed, he sees the blank ground glass, illuminated by the four 
small lights. The shutter operates a switch which cuts off the 
small lights when the shutter is open and- allows them to come 
on again when the shutter closes. The advantage which may be 
urged for this form of apparatus is that there are no moving 
parts to distract the subject and that the noise of the parts is 
reduced to a minimum. 

With such apparatus, it is possible to ex-pose at M many dif- 
ferent types of material, such as dots, letters, words, etc. With 
the different time adjustments upon the shutter at L such ma- 
terial may be exposed upon the ground glass M for a fraction of 
a second or for a longer time. If this apparatus is understood, 
it is possible to state the problem at hand more definitely, as 
follows: If a series of letters such as C X M R is exposed at M 
for a fraction of a second, how many letters will be perceived? 
In other words, what is the spread or range of perception under 
such conditions? 

1 This form of apparatus may be had from C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. 



86 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

The first psychologist to procure data upon the problem was 
Cattell(9). The particular problem in which he was interested 
was reaction time, and the contributions which he made to per- 
ception were, in a way, by-products of his main experiments. 
His researches were begun in America, but were later transferred 
to Wundt's Laboratory in Leipzig. After his return to America 
his work was continued, and several articles were published upon 
various phases of the problem. 

The purpose of the reaction experiment is to determine the 
interval of time between a stimulus and its response. For exam- 
ple, the time which elapses between the sight of a word and the 
speaking of it may be found; or the length of time required for 
the making of a simple movement, like tapping with the finger, 
after hearing a sound, may be determined. Such periods of time 
are spoken of as reaction times. Reading may be thought of as 
a series of reactions, and the rate of reading will depend, in a 
measure, upon reaction time. 

Since such periods of time are very short, it requires accurate 
apparatus with which to perform the experiment. The unit of 
time which is usually employed is .001 of a second. By means of 
such apparatus, Cattell found that, in order for a letter or a word 
to be read, the light reflected from it must work on the retina 
from .001 to .017 seconds. The time for a word was found to be 
slightly shorter than for a letter. He also emphasized the fact 
that it took no longer to apperceive a phrase and, in some cases, 
a short sentence than it did to interpret a single word. 

From these experiments of Cattell 's, it is clear that perception 
has a spread, a range or a span. Such a range is dependent upon 
different factors to be discussed later, and varies with different 
conditions. The fact that such a range exists makes reading, as 
it is usually carried on, a possibility. The difficulty which one 
may encounter in deciphering the letters in large advertisements 
illustrates the point at hand. In reading these the observer 
may have to interpret each letter in the series by tracing it out 
with the eye. This is a slow and tedious process, because the 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 87 

conditions are such as to reduce the span of perception to a part 
of a letter. If this same method were required in all reading it 
would be a very different process from that employed by most 
readers. If the interpretative processes of reading proceed 
rapidly and easily, they do so because the material is perceived 
in units larger than would be possible in the case of the advertise- 
ment just mentioned. The span of perception, then, is a highly 
important factor in the reading process. Most languages when 
printed require a span of perception from left to right. In 
Japanese, there is an example of language which makes use of a 
span in a vertical direction. It seems most probable that print- 
ing might be done in a manner so that a span both in horizontal 
and vertical directions could be utilized. If pages were printed 
in small blocks rather than in hues, the perceptive process could 
operate in both directions. Indeed, even with the present form 
of printing, an experienced reader may, if the material is familiar, 
get some meaning from the lines below the point where the read- 
ing is actually being done. One type of reading which always 
proceeds in two dimensions is used in the perception of the 
musical characters which serve as a means for directing the fin- 
gers in piano playing. 

The Unit of Perception. From his experiments Cattell con- 
cluded that the unit of perception is not the letter, but that it 
may be a word, phrase, or a short sentence. He found also that 
very short exposures, which would allow only the recognition 
of a letter, were of sufficient length to allow the recognition of 
short words. 

He emphasized, further, that the time in which a short word 
may be apperceived is not sufficient for the recognition of a 
single letter. This is probably due to the fact that the word has 
meaning while the letter has little or none. In contrast to this 
Messmer (28) found the time required for the recognition of 
letters in the reading of beginners to be shorter generally than 
the time required for the recognition of words. Perhaps the 
children had been taught their letters before words. As a 



88 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

result, they were more familiar with letters than with words 
at the time at which Messmer conducted his experiments 
with them. 

The unit of perception varies under different conditions. The 
most favorable conditions for the use of a long span of attention 
in reading are probably a knowledge of the topic at hand and an 
experience which makes for an understanding of the thought of 
the selection being read. This indicates that children should do 
much reading in material which fits into their experiences and 
which is readily interpreted. Such reading will do much to 
enhance the proper use of the range of perception and other im- 
portant elements of the reading habit. It is not to be forgotten 
that the child must also deal with material which presents difii- 
culties to him. Such material necessarily involves analysis of 
both content and form, and makes for small units of perception. 
However if this type of material is used continuously, it may 
develop reading habits which result in inefficiency. Resourceful 
teachers will make use of both types of material. 

Again, the unit of perception may depend upon maturity. 
Cattell's work was done with adults; so it cannot be argued that 
his results apply directly to children in their early years. In 
oral language children go through a period in which they deal 
almost entirely with words. It may properly be argued that the 
same tendency is characteristic of the early stages of children's 
reading. 

The conclusions of Cattell have been confirmed by other in- 
vestigators. They were, however, opposed by Zeitler (41) and 
by.Goldscheider and Mliller (21). These authors contended that 
the reading stimulus is not the entire word, but rather certain 
parts of it which give it its individuality. Zeitler speaks of these 
parts as "dominating complexes," while Goldscheider and 
Mliller speak of them as "determining letters." These theories 
have never been given general acceptance and have had but 
little influence upon the teaching of reading. On the other hand, 
Cattell's theory has had wide acceptance and has had great in- 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 89 

fluence in establishing and fixing the methods of teaching 
primary reading. 

The view held by Cattell makes perception a synthetic process 
rather than one of analysis. The early teacher of reading pro- 
ceeded upon the theory that words must be spelled or analyzed 
before reading could take place. The acceptance of the word and 
sentence methods, which were based in a large degree upon 
Cattell's results, led for a time to the other extreme. In such 
procedure the child was given no means of analysis, and, as a 
result, when he came to a new situation he had no methods for 
extracting, himself from such difficulties. It was soon realized 
that some method of analysis was necessary for the child, and 
the problem has been solved, at least in part, by teaching him to 
spell in connection with his reading and by giving him the tech- 
nique of phonics. 

These two processes, synthesis and analysis, stand opposed 
to each other, and the difiiculty lies in so balancing them that 
the one does not overshadow the other. Both processes must be 
taught and both must be held clearly in the mind of the teacher. 

The Length of the Span of Perception for the Different School 
Grades. If the span of perception has an important place in 
the reading activity, then its development through the different 
school grades should be understood. Some data upon this prob- 
lem have been compiled by the writer (22). The short-exposure 
apparatus used in the experiments was similar to that previously 
described. The material was in the form of short sentences con- 
taining two, three, four, five, and six words. A part of the sub- 
jects took a seven-word series. Three sentences of each type 
were given. Table VII shows results for this work. 

A comparison of the results for the third grade and the college 
group shows that there is a decided increase from the first to the 
last. This increase does not appear to be continuous through 
the grades. From the third to the fourth grades an increase is 
apparent, but through the fifth and sixth grades, the results are 
more or less erratic. After this, the increase is continuous. The 



90 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



erratic condition during the fifth and sixth grades probably rep- 
resents some change in methods of reading. It is possible that 
reading in the early grades, which is done with a short span of 
perception, requires a distinct method of interpretation. Such 
a method must be slow and tedious, and, as the span of percep- 
tion increases, this method changes into one which is more effec- 
tive. The erratic results shown in the above table may be due 
to a shifting from one method to the other. In some parts of 
the experiment, the material exposed was such that the method 

Table VII 
■Showing Increase of Perceptual Span Through the Various School Grades 



Grade 


Av. 2 
, Words 


Av. 3 
Words 


Av. 4 
Words 


Av. s 
Words 


Av. 6 
Words 


Av. 7 
Words 


3 


1-7 


1.8 


1. 9 


2.0 


2.4 


2.2 


4 


1.8 


2-3 


2.7 


2.8 


3 


I 




5 


1.8 


2.0 


2.0 


2.7 


3 


o 




6 


1.8 


2.2 


2.1 


2-3 


3 


o 




7 
H. S. 


1.8 
1.8 


2.2 
2.6 


2-5 
2.8 


2.9 

3-8 


3 
3 


4 
Q 


2.4 

3-1 


C 


2.0 


2.6 


3-5 


4.2 


4 


2 


2.8 



which involves a long span of perception gave effectual results, 
while in other parts the material was of such a nature that there 
had to be a reversion to the method involving a short span. As 
a result, the success of the child is not so great as when he is able 
to use the method involving the long span. This change is simi- 
lar to one from the processes involved in reading the large adver- 
tisements, already mentioned, to the methods used by the expe- 
rienced person in ordinary reading. A change from one method 
to the other could easily produce erratic results, such as those 
found in the preceding table. 

The total increase through the grades is doubtless due to 
training, experience, and familiarity with language forms. Each 
of these factors will be discussed later. It is also possible that 
mental and physical maturity plays its part in the increase of 
the span of perception. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 91 

Another point concerning Table VII is the decrease of the span 
for the seven-word series. In most cases there is an increase in 
the span from the two-word series to the six-word series. This 
is due in part to the fact that a six-word series offers greater 
opportunity to the reader than does a two- word series. In many 
cases the subject is able to avail himself of such an opportunity; 
but when he is confronted with a seven-word sentence, confusion 
results. Some of Cattell's (lo) data relate to this point. He 
reports that of nine persons studied in one of his experiments 
four could read letters faster when five letters were exposed at a 
time. This same group was not helped by a sixth letter. Others 
did best when four letters were exposed, but were not helped by 
a fifth letter; and still others were not helped by a fourth letter. 
In the same connection. Gates (20) has shown that if digits are 
exposed in numbers which exceed the span of perception, the 
number of digits that can be recalled is decreased. These experi- 
ments suggest that material for beginners should be carefully 
selected as to its complexity. Sentences that are too long and 
too involved cause confusion on the part of the child and may 
finally result in habits which are not desirable. Doubtless words 
also present to children difficulties as to complexity. Bowden 
(6) found that words of five letters gave more difficulty than did 
words of a fewer or a greater number of letters. 

Griifing (23) has attacked the problem of the span of percep- 
tion for different school grades from the standpoint of both age 
and grade. In his experiments, a short-exposure apparatus was 
used. The material exposed was in the form of nonsense sylla- 
bles. Six letters were exposed each time. In addition to the 
above technique, this investigator added one other element to 
his experiment. When everything was ready for the experiment 
the subject was told to look at a certain fixation point on the 
apparatus until the material appeared. The time during which 
the subject was required to fixate his attention was varied and 
results were obtained for each variation. The average of the 
total number of letters seen correctly by the various school 



92 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

grades is as follows: First grade 2, second and third grades 
(combined in one group) 6, fourth grade 7, fifth grade 14, sixth 
grade 12, seventh grade 14, eighth grade 21, high school 23, and 
college 29. 
In his discussion, GriiSng says: 

It is evident that the extensive threshold of ability to receive and retain a 
number of simultaneous impressions is a function of individual growth, 
reaching its maximum only when the observer is fully developed. 

It seems*that this author has in his results an erratic condition 
through the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. This is similar 
' to the conditions found in the preceding study. In one of his 
discussions, Messmer (30) emphasizes that children pass through 
a period of fluctuating attention. Such a period of fluctuation 
would probably produce erratic results, such as those found in 
each of the previously cited studies. 

From the preceding results, it is clear that there is an increase 
in the span of perception through the various school grades. 
This seems to be due to both maturity and practice. Such an 
increase in the span of perception may produce an entire change 
in the methods employed by the child in his reading. Some 
pupils are able to make the transition from one method to the 
other without difficulty, while others show very clearly that they 
are unable to change from the use of a short span to the use of a 
longer span, without considerable confusion in their mental 
activity. 

The Relation of Context to the Span of Perception. The fore- 
going experiments may be criticized in that they set up condi- 
tions which resemble the beginning of the reading process, rather 
than that process after it has proceeded for a period of time. 
Such criticism is of importance because the reading in the mid- 
dle of a portion of a selection may be a different process from the 
reading at the very beginning. 

Quantz (33) first attacked this problem in the oral reading of 
adults. While his subjects were reading, this investigator 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 93 

placed a card over the reading matter at some predetermined 
point, which was unknown to the reader. After the card was in 
place, the reader continued reading as far as possible. Records 
were made for that part of the reading which came after the card 
was in place. Quantz selected three different positions in the 
reading matter for placing the card over the selection. These 
were the beginning of a line, the end of a line, and the middle of 
a Une. By such technique, it is possible to determine how far 
the attention runs ahead of the voice in oral reading. This span 
was called by Quantz the "voice-eye" span. He found the 
average span for the beginning of a line to be 7.4 words, for the 
middle of the line 5.1 words, and for the end of the line 3.8 words. 
These results are greater than the results for adults in Table 
VII. Such a difference is due in part to the effect of context. 
Another factor which must operate to produce this difference 
is that the voice proceeds slowly while the attention has no such 
restrictions. Quantz also emphasized that there is a close rela- 
tion between such a span and rate of reading. He thought that 
there must be a considerable distance between the eye and voice 
if the reading is to be intelHgent. This distance apparently 
allows a partial interpretation; and when the visual and motor 
phases become sufficiently definite, the full meaning attaches to 
the experience. 

The writer (22) has studied the problem by stiU another 
method. Figure 2 gives a sketch of the apparatus used. The 
reading material in the form of a lantern-slide was placed in the 
lantern at X. When the photographic shutter at H in which the 
lens of the lantern is mounted is open, the reading selection is 
reflected from the mirror B to the surface C and can be read by 
the reader from D. When the shutter is closed nothing appears 
at C; or when the material is exposed and the shutter is made to 
close, the reading material disappears suddenly from the view 
of the reader. The surface at C, then, may be a blank or it may 
have reflected upon it a reading selection, depending upon 
whether the shutter at H is open or closed. By closing the shut- 



94 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



ter, the investigator may cause the reading material to disappear 
from the view of the reader at any point in the selection that 
may be chosen by the operator. The material used in the ex- 
periment consisted of eight selections, which varied in difficulty. 




Fig. 2 
^Showing Form of Apparatus Used in Delerniining the Voice-Eye Span 
A magnet D headrest H shutter 

B mirror E speaking tube / electric key 

C reading surface G bell X reading material 

The subject read into the speaking tube F, and his voice was 
recorded upon the wax cylinder of a dictaphone. When the key 
/ was closed to operate the electric magnet A which closed the 
shutter at H, a second magnet operated the bell at G. The in- 
stant the material disappeared from the view of the reader, the 
sound of the bell was recorded upon the cylinder. The subject 
continued reading as far as possible after the material disap- 
peared. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 95 



By this means, the total readmg of the individual was recorded 
upon the cylinder. The operator then listened to the record as 
reproduced from the wax cylinder and that portion of the read- 
ing which came after the sound of the bell represented the voice- 
eye span, or the range of recognition. In this way, data were 
collected for the range at the beginning of the line, the middle 
of the line, and at the end of the line. These results are shown 
in Table VIII. 

Table VIII 
Showing Average Voice-Eye Span for Successive School Grades 





Average No. of Correct Words to the Line 


Grade 










Beginning 


Middle 


End 


Average 


3 


3-2, 


2.7 


2.9 


2.9 


4 


2 


9 


2.4 


2 .1 


2 


5 


5 


3 


3 


2.7 


2.6 


2 


8 


6 


4 


o 


3-1 


3-2 


3 


4 


7 


4 


3 


3-6 


3-6 


3 


8 


H. S. 


4 


6 


4-5 


4-4 


4 


5 


C. 


4 


8 


4-4 


4.2 


4-4 



This table gives the average range for successive grades. The 
results show that the fourth and fifth grades do not have a 
span which exceeds that of the third grade. From the fifth 
grade there is an increase in the range through the various 
grades until the college group is reached. Here the results for 
the middle of the line and the end of the line are not so great 
as the same results for the high-school group. The smaller 
range for the fourth and fifth grades may be due to the fact that 
the children are in a transition period in the development of 
their reading ability. The fourth and fifth grades are probably 
stages in school life when the child changes his mode of reading. 
If he is called upon to read aloud at this period, his attention 
may be distracted, so that he is less efficient than he would be 
at either an earlier or a later stage. The very small difference 
between the high-school pupils and the college group indicates 
that those in high-school have about reached the limit in such 



96 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



development, and the differences between the groups may be 
thought of as individual differences. With the exception of 
grades four and five, the averages shown in Table VIII are greater 
than the results for the six-word series in Table VII, where the 
short-exposure experiment was used. Such a comparison of the 
results gives additional evidence of the transition period which 
evidently comes in development of reading ability. 

It is also of interest to compare the results of the voice-eye 
span with those of the short exposure experiment already 
described. In the case of a single individual each span may be 
long or each may be short, or one may be short and the other 
long. The results for the voice-eye span experiment should indi- 
cate a greater span than the results in the short-exposure experi- 
ment, because in oral reading the reading process is retarded by 
the vocal movements, while the attention has no such restriction 
placed upon it. Hence, there will be a considerable distance 
between the focus and the margin of the perceptual field. In 
silent reading, the vocal movements do not enter, in any great 
degree, and, as a result, the focus and margin are more nearly 
coincident. It is also true that in the voice-eye experiment, the 
reader has the benefit of the context in a greater degree than in 
the short-exposure experiment. Hence, it would seem that, if 
there is no great disparity between the results of the two experi- 
ments, the reader is using a method of interpretation which is in 
harmony with his perceptual ability; but if there is a difference, 
then the reader is possibly not well adjusted in his method of 
reading. Table IX gives data for the comparisons as suggested. 



Table IX 
Showing Relations between Span of Perception and Rate of Reading 


Subjects 


Av. on 6 word 

series (short 

exposure) 


Av. no. of cor- 
rect words for 
middle of line. 
Voice-eye span 


Range in 
oral rate 


Range in 
silent rate 


(X) 

(2) 
(3) 


o.S 
4.2 
2.8 


1 .0 
1.8 
6.2 


2.5-0.8 
3.1-0.6 
4.8-1.8 


3I-I-3 
2 . 9-1 . 2 
3.9-2.6 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 97 

Results are shown for three pupils. The second column at 
the left gives results for the six-word series mentioned in the 
short-exposure experiments above. Column three gives results 
for the same pupils in the voice-eye experiment. Column four 
gives the range in rate for the same readers in reading orally a 
series of passages of varying difficulty. The silent-reading rates 
were also obtained by having the same subjects read a series of 
passages of varying difficulty. 

In the results for the first subject, there is a correspondence 
all the way through. There is a short span of perception in each 
of the perception experiments and a slow rate in both oral and 
silent reading. The data for subject two show entirely different 
conditions. In the short-exposure experiment the record of 4.2 
is above the average, while in the voice-eye experiment, which 
is taken from actual reading, the result is 1.8, which is very low. 
The rates are both slow. This can indicate only that this pupil 
has a span of perception above the average, but that he is not 
able to employ it to its full extent in his reading. Interpretation 
for a single act of perception is done in an efficient manner; but 
when the acts of perception follow each other in rapid succession, 
as in reading, interpretation becomes very slow and tedious. 
Such conditions would evidently be remedied by having the 
child read material in which he was interested, and which was 
within his grasp, so that there would be little or no difficulty in 
interpretation. 

The results for subject three are very different from those of 
the preceding case. Here the data for the short-exposure 
experiment indicate such a short span of perception that results 
in the voice-eye span experiment might be expected to corre- 
spond very closely to them. This does not prove to be the case, 
however, for he has a span for the second experiment which is 
equal to that of the average span, or better. This reader does 
better in rate of reading than either one of the two pupils above. 
One interpretation which may be placed upon such conditions is 
that this subject is erratic in his mental operations. He has the 



98 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



ability to do efficient reading, if he chooses, but, unfortunately, 
he is willing to do much of his work upon a low level of attention. 
If such a view is accepted, it is rather difficult to give reasons 
why the pupil is stimulated to greater activity at certain times 
than at others. 

In the case of subject three, the best results are obtained again 
where oral reading is involved. This may mean that this reader 
is more efficient when he uses the methods of interpretation in- 
volved in oral reading than when he uses the methods of silent 
reading. The fact that oral reading proceeds slowly may have 
enabled this pupil to be more efficient under the conditions of 
this type of reading. 

The results which have been pointed out in connection with 
Table IX indicate that some other factor than the span of percep- 
tion operates to determine reading ability. In other words, a 
wide span of perception is not sufficient within itself to give 
efficient reading ability. 

Data of the same sort as in the voice-eye experiment may be 
procured from silent reading by the method of introspection. 
By the use of the apparatus previously described, the reading 
matter may be made to disappear just as before. If the subject 
reads silently, and notes the word where his attention was fo- 
cused when the material disappeared, and then records whatever 
he remembers of the material after that particular word, the 
extent of the span of perception in silent reading is obtained. 
This process depends entirely upon introspection, and, for this 

Table X 
Showing Range of Recognition in Silent Reading for Adults 



Subject 


Average no. 

of words per 

line 


Subject 


Average no. 

of words per 

line 


I 

2 

3 

4 


3-1 
3-9 

2.7 

1 .1 


5 
6 

7 
8 


2.5 
3-1 

2.7 
2.0 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 99 

reason, the results are valid only for adults. Table X gives 
results for eight adults. Each subject read eight selections of 
varying difficulty and made one report on each. The average 
of words given in the table refers to the average for these eight 
reports. In general, averages for this span of perception are 
smaller than in similar experiments for oral reading. This is 
due to the fact that silent reading is not retarded by vocal 
movements. The very large variations which are found in the 
results of this test must be closely related to differences in rate 
which were found in the same group. 

Another method used by the writer (22) in studying the eye- 
voice span made use of apparatus which allowed phonograph 
records of oral reading and eye-movement of the same reading 
to be synchronized. 

This work showed large individual differences and much var- 
iation in the span of the same individual from time to time. 

Buswell (8) has used a variation of this method in an extended 
investigation. Some of his most important conclusions are as 
follows: (i) a positive correlation was shown between a wide 
eye-span and mature reading habits; (2) width of voice-eye span 
has a positive correlation with rate of reading; (3) a negative 
correlation is shown between width of voice-eye span and num- 
ber of fixations per line; (4) the development of the voice-eye 
span does not show a consistent increase from grade to grade, 
but is very irregular; (5) little correlation was found between 
widtH of voice-eye span and position in the line; (6) a marked 
correlation exists between width of the voice-eye span and posi- 
tion in the sentence; (7) the voice-eye span is very elastic. 

Huey (27) studied the problem of the relation of context to 
the span of perception from the standpoint of silent reading. 
His method consisted in reading a selection to his subjects up to 
a certain point and then exposing the next word, or words, by 
means of a short-exposure apparatus. The amount of material 
exposed was varied, and results were obtained for the different 
amounts. This plan allows perception by means of the context 



100 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



after the reading process is well under way, although the pause 
between the reading and the short-exposure experiments must 
have been distracting. The results are given in millimeters in- 
stead of words and so cannot be compared with the results of 
other investigators. The total extent of material in millimeters 
for four subjects is 21.7, 8.8, 23.9, and 27.8. Huey does not make 
any attempt to relate these results to reading rate. Their chief 
value lies in pointing out that large individual differences exist. 
Hamilton (25) has attacked the same problem by a method 
similar to that employed by Huey. His experiments were car- 
ried out by means of a short-exposure apparatus. His method 
differed from Huey's in that all the material was exposed in sec- 
tions from left to right. Three types of selections were used: 
paragraphs, miscellaneous phrases, and miscellaneous words. 
These were all read by successive exposures in such a way as to 
render the procedure very similar to the successive reading 
pauses in normal reading. The results of this experiment for 
one subject are shown in Table XL This subject is able to read 
more by this method when phrases are exposed rather than 
words, and a still greater amount can be read when the para- 
graph is exposed. 

Table XI 
Showing Amount Read Correclly in Millimelers for Successive Short Exposures, 

by Hamilton 



Subj. 


Sel. 


Rate 


Paragraphs 


- Phrases 


Words 


M 


M.V. 


M 


M.V. 


M 


M.V. 


W 


I 
3 
5 


■044 
• 013 

.007 


34-3 
31.6 

31-4 


10.5 

7.2 
9.0 


30-4 
30.2 
25.2 


8.7 
9.0 
8.4 


20.4 
22.1 
19.2 


9.1 

7.2 
7.0 



Explanation of abbreviations and terms: Subj. Subject; Sel. Selection of read- 
ing matter; Rate. Time of exposure in seconds; M. Average amount in millimeters 
read per exposure; M. V. The mean variation from the average of amounts read 
per exposure. 

The preceding experiments have shown clearly the close rela- 
tion of context to the span of perception. In most cases the span 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 101 

is increased when context is involved. This argues that training 
in reading which employs isolated and disconnected words makes 
for a short range of perception; while if a child is allowed contact 
with material which is within his grasp, there is opportunity for 
the development of the wider span of perception. The influence 
of context evidently comes through two different avenues. 
First, it is of aid to a reader who has a knowledge of language 
relations and a feeling for them, and, second, it aids very materi- 
ally those persons who are able to avail themselves of marginal 
impressions in their reading. A detailed discussion of each of 
these factors will be given in another connection. 

The relation of the span of perception to the reading process 
has been little understood by teachers, and few have been made 
to take it into consideration in the methods employed in teaching 
the subject. Careful teachers may be able to pick out pupils 
who have difhculty in changing from interpretation depending 
upon short units to interpretation depending upon larger units. 
Such teachers should attempt to devise methods for dealing with 
such cases. 

The Effect of Arrangement upon Perception. Another factor 
which determines in a large degree the extent of the span of 
perception is the way in which material is grouped. In the 
short-exposure experiment it is possible to change the span of 
perception very materially by the rearrangement of material. 
If the group of letters, " Themanwenthome " is exposed, proba- 
bly only three or four letters will be recognized. But if the letters 
are written "The man went home," the entire group may be 
perceived. Goldscheider and Miiller (21) found that, if straight 
lines were arranged in a haphazard order, as shown under A in 
Figure 3, and were exposed for a very short time, the most that 
could be perceived was four or five lines; but, if the same type 
of lines were arranged in some symmetrical manner, as shown in 
B of Figure 3, the number of lines which could be perceived was 
very much increased. Freeman (19) has investigated the same 
Droblem as it relates to number of ideas and finds that the 



102 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



same law holds. If dots are exposed thus and then the 

same number is exposed in another form, as : : : the number 
which can be perceived in the second arrangement is very much 
increased. 

The general point which is of interest to teachers at this time 
is that reading may be thought of as the interpretation of 
grouped stimuli. Printed language as involved in reading is a 
grouping of letters and of words. In the groups of lines or dots 
above, the advantage of one grouping over another lies in the 




A 



B 



Fig. 3 
Showing Dijferent Arrangements of Material for Short-exposure Experiment 

fact that one form lends itself to interpretation in a manner 
which is not true of the other. In dealing with words, the in- 
vestigator will find that the form may play its part, but their 
meaning is also an essential factor in the experiment. The rela- 
tion of meaning to reading efficiency has been dealt with by 
Hamilton (25). His experiments were performed by means of a 
short-exposure apparatus. The material exposed consisted of 
short sentences, phrases, and words. Some typical results are 
shown in Table XII. This table shows that material which 
involves meaning in the greatest degree (sentences) makes for 
the greatest efficiency in reading, while material which has 
meaning in the least degree (words) makes for the least efficiency. 
The problem of the teacher of reading is to provide methods 
and means by which the child may become thoroughly famiUar 
with the groups or combinations found in printed language. 



QUANTITATIVE PILOSES OF PERCEPTION 103 



Such experiments as Hamilton's indicate the large value of 
connected material in developing such a program. 

Table XII 

Showing Amount in Millimeters, of Words Arranged in Sentences, Mis- 
cellaneous Phrases, Miscellaneous Words, Read at a Single Exposure of .021 
Second, by Hamilton 



Subject 


Sentences 


Phrases 


Words 


M. M. V. 


M. M. V. 


M. M. V. 


A. 
M. 
W. 
B. 
C. 


41.6 10.3 
23 . 6 1 1 . 1 
33T^ 10.7 
25.4 7-8 
42.8 6.6 


34-5 10.5 

17.6 8.0 

27.7 lO.I 
23.4 4.1 
34-9 10.4 


12.9 6.6 
I3-I 5-8 
16.3 7.1 
131 6.5 
23.6 12.3 



M. Average; Af. V. Average variation 

There must be no confusion and no hesitation in the recogni- 
tion of the various words or groupings. For a large majority of 
words, it is possible for the pupil to reach this level of au- 
tomatism, but a few words may remain in the vocabulary of 
most pupils for which they do not acquire this high degree of 
automatism. To illustrate, the writer is always conscious of a 
"second look" at any one of the three words, "philosophy," 
"physiology," and "psychology." The recognition of these 
words is not so automatic as that of many other words in his 
vocabulary. 

The effect of automatism upon recognition is also of interest 
at this time. At first, it may be necessary to look carefuUy at a 
word before recognition takes place, but later, certain character- 
istics of the word stand out and these outstanding features seem 
sufficient for recognition. Before the perception of a word is 
thoroughly automatic, the element of guessing may enter into 
its recognition. Sometimes such guessing leads to the wrong 
word, and in the interest of correct interpretation the mistake 
must be righted. Many of the mistakes of children can be ac- 
counted for because the chUd is in the process of making the 



104 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



recognition of a word automatic. In order to save time, he 
resorts to guessing, and this leads him astray. This may be a 
partial explanation of the erratic condition of the fifth and sixth 
grades found in Table VI. 

In many cases, such automatism can be attained as a result 
of synthetic processes. This means that proficiency is gained by 
learning the form as a whole. In other cases, such automatism 
will result only from a process of analysis. Whatever the method 
involved, it is necessary that there be automatism in the percep- 
tion of words if efficiency in reading is to be gained. 

There is also a hierarchy of automatic habits. Not only do we 
learn to recognize words, but we learn to recognize, in the same 
way, phrases and other larger language units. These higher 
levels of automatism result in anticipatory feelings for what is 
to come in a selection. These may be spoken of as feelings for 
language relations. 

Relation of Span of Perception to Rate of Reading. Data given 
by the short-exposure experiment are sometimes objected to on 

Diagram IX 
Showing Relation between Span of Perception and Rate of Reading 




Trmx 



i./-j.(^i/-«i!\ u./-/.ii\e/-e.o\e:/-3.si3/-i<c 



Group r(o.i-i.o) Group 11(1.1-2.9) Group III (2.1-3.0) Group IV (3. 1-4.0) 

the ground that the mental activity involved in the experiment 
is not reading. That there is a close relation between such results 
and the rate of reading is shown in Diagram IX. In compiling 
these data the writer arranged the subjects in four groups upon 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 105 



the basis of the minimum rates at which they read a series of 
passages of varying difficulty. In Group I were placed all those 
whose rate of reading was from one tenth of a word to one word 
per second. In Group II were placed all those whose reading 
rate was from one and one tenth words to two words per second; 
and so on, for Groups III and IV. The subjects in Group I 
were then distributed in Curve A; those in Group II were dis- 
tributed in Curve B; and those in the remaining groups were 
arranged in a similar manner. The base line of these curves 
represents the span of perception. A survey of these data shows 
that the greater part of those in Group I, as indicated by the 
height of the rectangles, had a span of perception which ranged 
from I.I to 2.0 words, while in Groups II the greatest number 
of subjects had a span of perception of 2.1 and 3.0 words; and 
so on, for each of the groups. Thus it is seen that, as the span of 
perception increases, the rate of reading increases. 

Diagram X 

Showing Relation between Voice-Eye Span (Beginning of a Line) and 

Rale of Reading 



l^SSFT- 



«-^.ol2/-ii'U./.«ol«/-*;k/-<.<'l 

Oroupl Co.ji-i.q) 




l.£^f\Z/-3.l?\3J 

Group II (i. 1-2.0) 



Group III (2.1-3.0) 



In the same way, data from the voice-eye experiment may be 
arranged as shown in Diagram X. Groups I, II, and III are 
arranged upon the same basis as indicated in Diagram IX. The 
digits in the base line indicate the span of perception. The 



106 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



height of the rectangles indicates the number of subjects. It 
will be seen that the greater part of those in Group I, as indicated 
by the height of the rectangle, has a span of perception which 
ranges from 2.1 to 3.0 words. In Group II the greatest number 
has a span of perception which ranges from 4.1 to 5.0 words; 
and in curve C, the greatest number has a span of 5.1 to 6.0 
words. Again, the rate of reading increases as the span of per- 
ception increases. 

Correlations which exist between the span of perception and 
rate and comprehension in reading have been determined by 
Starch (^8). Such correlations are found in Table XIII. The 
results as shown in this table serve to emphasize the relations 
which were shown in the diagrams just mentioned. 

Table XIII 

Showing Correlation between the Perceptual Span and Speed and Comprehen- 
sion in Reading, by Starch 





Speed 


Compre- 
hension 


Speed 

plus 
compre- 
hension 


1. Visual perceptual span-letters 

2. Visual perceptual span-unrelated words 

3. Visual perceptual span-related words 


.40 
• 64 
.70 


•32 
•73 
•59 


.41 
.70 
.69 



The preceding results raise the question as to how a large span 
of perception gives the reader so endowed an advantage over 
one not so endowed. It is evident that those who are able to 
use the peripheral vision have a distinct advantage over those 
who are not. This is probably due to the fact that peripheral 
vision gives a partial interpretation. Then, when a word comes 
into direct vision, it has been partially interpreted, and the recog- 
nition can be completed more quickly than otherwise. 

Hamilton (25) has discussed this point as follows: 

As to what functions the marginal impressions perform in normal reading, 
assuming that they are approximately represented by my results, our 
knowledge is likewise somewhat too meagre to formulate any definite theory. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 107 

Nevertheless, a sufficient number of facts have been established to warrant 
some tentative conclusions. In the first place, the right-hand marginal im- 
pressions doubtless serve as preHminary partial perceptions of the words, 
which together with the factor of context, facilitate the full recognition of 
these impressions when they appear in the area of distinct attention at the 
next reading pause. 

That there is a correlation between the size of the area of distinct attention 
and that of the right-hand marginal impression is shown by the fact that the 
area of the former varies inversely as the area of the latter. The constant 
presence of the right-hand marginal area must be of value, therefore, owing 
to its preparatory and orienting effect, allowing a more rapid succession of 
the movements, which more than compensates for the loss in breadth of 
clear perception entailed by the presence of these marginal impressions. 

Dodge (15) has made a study of the same problem. His 
method consisted in having the subject focus a certain point. 
This was followed by bringing into the margin of the perceptual 
field a word or words. This necessitated a movement of the eye 
before the word came into the focus of clear vision and allowed 
a pre-vision which had a length which corresponded to the reac- 
tion time of the eye. As a result of this, very perceptible differ- 
ences were found in the time required for interpretation as the 
material was moved further into the margin of the perceptual 
field. Dodge's discussion of his results may be quoted: 

The only thing that is distinguishable half or two thirds across the page 
is a vague outline of the word, a vague word form, ... In many cases, it 
would be altogether impossible to recognize the word from this vague outHne. 
In all cases its perception is doubtless delayed beyond the normal preception 
time for objects at the macula. The question is : What can that vague out- 
line do towards the initiation of the subsequent clear perception? I conjec- 
ture that as a stimulus its influence is general rather than specific. I con- 
jecture that the pre-fixational stimulation is a general stimulation of a con- 
siderable group of verbal residua. And prolonged observation of the 
peripheral field supports the hypothesis, since from the shadowy outlines 
of the peripherally seen words a succession of words may tentatively arise, 
more or less similar in general appearance, which we may test out by com- 
parison with the peripherally seen word until we find one that fits. In the 
normal reading process there is no time for any of these suggestions to be 
tested out; they doubtless never pass the stage of mildly aroused residua, 
belonging to a general group. As in subsequent fixation the peripherally seen 



108 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

word comes to the area of clear vision I conjecture that the inhibitory func- 
tion of clear perception becomes more prominent, shutting out of the compe- 
tition all the residua aroused by the more general peripheral stimulation 
except those further stimulated by the new, more definite details. 

Another important problem presented by Diagrams IX and X 
is concerned with the methods by which a few individuals in 
each group with a much abbreviated span of perception can read 
at the same rate as those with a large span of perception. This 
can be explained in terms of attention. The persons with the 
abbreviated span of perception work at a higher level of atten- 
tion than do those with the larger span. This probably means 
that for such persons reading is a difficult task which consumes 
a considerable amount of energy and results in fatigue. Con- 
firmation of this may be found in some of those persons who do 
not like to read, and who complain that reading is a laborious 
process and that they get fatigued quickly while reading. 

Still another problem suggested by Diagrams IX and X has 
to do with those individual readers who have a still wider span 
of attention than the majority. The explanation of this problem 
lies again, perhaps, in the level of attention at which they work. 
They do not put much energy into their reading and, as a result, 
their reading rate is slow. Another way to characterize such 
reading is to say that it is easy-going. Doubtless some pupils 
need to be forced to read more rapidly. If such training were 
given, it is highly probable that it would result in a considerable 
increase in their efficiency. 

The Effect of Practice upon the Span of Perception. The general 
problem suggested by this heading was brought to the attention 
of teachers some years ago in the work of Miss Aiken (i). She 
was interested in developing accuracy in vision and audition 
and in quickening all the "perceptive faculties." The material 
used in her work consisted of numerals, letters, words, etc. 
The children in her charge had to deal with these various forms 
of material in many ways. Some of the tasks assigned them were 
very difficult, and the results obtained seemed remarkable. 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 109 

These results led Whipple (39) to attack the problem experimen- 
tally. This author used nonsense material, such as X M Z P, 
for training purposes. The material was exposed by means of 
a short-exposure apparatus. The training period, as stated by 
this author, was ''some six weeks," and the subjects used were 
adults. He concludes that there is no increase in the span of 
perception which cannot be explained in other ways. 

The next investigator who took up the problem was Foster 
(18). Instead of using the short-exposure method, this author 
exposed different types of material such as ink dots, drawings, 
and photographs, by placing them on a table before the subject. 
The time varied with the different types of objects exhibited. 
His subjects were adults. His conclusion is that the training is 
specific and that it does not transfer to any type of ability 
except those t3^es closely related to that in which the training 
is given. 

Dallenbach (12) attacked the same general problem by means 
of a method different from either of those cited above. This 
author pitched his investigation more nearly upon the plane of 
observation. His material included numerals, letters, words, 
and geometrical forms. These were arranged and combined in 
different ways. The material was printed upon cards and ex- 
posed to the class for five seconds. The subjects were second- 
grade children. The practice period extended over seventeen 
weeks. While the method varied much from the conditions of 
reading, yet the results have a general bearing upon the problem 
at hand. The data show a decided improvement in the amount 
of material which the children were able to apprehend. This 
increase was rapid at first and slow in the latter part of the 
experiment. In discussing the results, the author says: 

The general conclusion which seems imminent here is that training among 
children has a decided influence upon the span of perception, and that such 
training persists. 

With about the same technique as Whipple used, except that 
short sentences were exposed instead of nonsense syllables, the 



110 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

writer (22) trained two pupils in the sixth grade for twenty days 
for the purpose of increasing their span of perception. The 
results were negative. He then trained two pupils in the third 
grade by the same technique and succeeded in increasing the 
span of perception by about forty per cent. 

In this connection, Messmer (30) gives as one of his con- 
clusions that the radius of attention grows in children with in- 
creasing practice and reaches its maximum probably near the 
eleventh year. 

The importance of this phase of perception for reading cannot 
be overemphasized. The span of perception with which a 
reader is endowed is probably due to both maturity and training. 
Working at a high level of attention may compensate for the 
lack of a large range of perception; but it seems evident that the 
person who is endowed with a short span of perception will 
reach the Hmits of his accomplishment at a lower level than will 
the one not so endowed. A perfect science for the teaching of 
reading will require that the teacher be able to predict with some 
degree of accuracy the plane of accomplishment which a pupil 
will be able to reach. When the span of perception in the early 
grades is better understood, it is altogether probable that such 
knowledge will be of assistance in making such a prediction. 

The importance of this element in reading ability requires 
that it receive more attention in the methods employed in the 
teaching of reading. Instead of the rather unsystematic training 
given with flash cards, a definite plan which is well organized 
and the results of which are well understood must be devised 
and employed by all teachers. The mental processes, as empha- 
sized in the work with flash cards, are synthetic in nature and 
result in f amiHarity with the total forms of words or larger com- 
binations of language units. 

It is true in the case of most children, that the drill and prac- 
tice given in the regular reading work is sufiicient to develop 
the span of perception to the point which makes for efiiciency. 
On the other hand, there are, without doubt, those children who 



QUANTITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 111 

need much additional drill in order to reach the highest possible 
point of their development. Such drill will necessarily be 
mechanical and formal in a large degree. Hence, the problem 
of maintaining the interest of the child will prevail. Another 
point which will have to be taken into consideration is the trans- 
fer of such training to the reading process. Such training is 
necessarily separate and apart from the reading. Dallenbach's 
work shows that there is some transfer to other activities, but 
methods should be provided to insure a very high percentage of 
transfer to the reading activity. Still another point to be 
emphasized is that an increase in the span of perception may 
involve difficulties in interpretation. This may require radical 
changes in the method of reading used by the child. Such train- 
ing may bring about a loss in reading ability until the child has 
reorganized his method. Yet another fact to be stressed is that 
such training must come early if it is to be effective. It is 
probable that the span of perception as a factor in reading 
ability is fixed early in the experience of the child. Finally, it 
may be said that when the relation of the span of perception to 
reading ability is more fully appreciated and proper methods are 
provided for dealing with the problem, the teaching of reading 
will have made advancement. 



CHAPTER V 
QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 

The discussion now passes to a consideration of certain 
qualitative phases of perception. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to study different forms and combinations of printed 
matter, in order to determine which ones lend themselves most 
readily to apprehension. The question might be stated as 
follows : What kind of form or arrangement produces the great- 
est span of perception? 

Different Kinds of Printing Type. The importance of reading 
requires that it be facilitated by every mechanical means pos- 
sible. It is directly dependent upon printing. In this there are 
two elements: the kind of type used, and the form of the print- 
ing. At present, only the first concerns us. Printing is relatively 
a late invention which has grown up in a somewhat haphazard 
fashion, and no great efforts have been made by printers to 
determine the best kind of type for printing. A few psycholo- 
gists have attacked the problem. Grifhng and Franz (24) found 
that the larger types are in every instance more legible than the 
smaller types, and that Gothic letters are more legible than 
Roman letters. Cattell (g), in his short-exposure work, found 
the descending order of legibility for capitals to be as follows: 
W-Z-M-D-H-K-N-X-A-Y-0-G-L-Q-I-S-C-T-R-P-B-V-F-U-J-E. 
This order was changed very much for lower-case letters. The 
order for them is as follows : d-k-m-q-h-b-p-w-u-1-j-t-v-z-r-o-f -n- 
a-x-y-e-i-g-c-s. 

Sanford (36) has also worked upon the same problem. He 
employed two methods. One of these was the same as that used 
by Cattell, while the other may be spoken of as the distance 
method. In the second procedure, apparatus was used which 

112 



-r- 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 113 

made it possible to vary the distance at which the letters were 
read, and the legibility of a letter was judged by the length of 
this distance. Some of the suggestions in regard to legibility 
made by this author are as follows: 

It can be said a priori that legibility will be favored by enlarging the size 
and increasing the differences of the letters. And it is easy to show also that 
legibility is favored by simplicity of outhne and concentration of the differ- 
entiations upon one particular. . . . With most of the letters, breadth is 
rather more of an advantage, other things being equal, than length, for it 
gives some visibility to their internal spaces. . . . The ceriphs, or little 
finishing strokes of the letters, for example, at the top and bottom of h and 
the ends of s and z, should be made short and rather triangular than Hnear 
in shape. . . . The concentration of differentia is weU seen in the group 
b d p q, where each of the letters is made of a straight stem and a loop, the 
whole difference being made in combining the two. All are very legible 
letters except b, which suffers from confusabiUty with h. An example of 
lack of concentration is found in g and a, which have few points in common 
with other letters and yet are mistaken for many different ones. 

The element of size cannot be used to improve the relatively poor letters 
without at the same time shocking taste and opening the way for new con- 
fusions. It is, therefore, from simpHfication and emphasis of the points of 
difference that help is to be expected. In the ceo group, for example, the 
point of distinction of c and e from o is the gap in the side, and Javal is right 
in proposing a return to the more open forms of the earUer type-founders. 
. . . The advantage of the wider openings of the c and e appears in the less 
percentage of confusion with o. The two forms of the Greek epsilon E and e, 
and an E, made with square comers like the capital to distinguish it from c, 
suggest themselves as possible substitutes. . . . 

Another group of the poor letters includes a, n, and ii. The distinction of 
n and u from each other and from a ought to be helped by keeping their open- 
ings at the top and bottom as open as possible. . . . Dr. Javal points out 
the curved top of the a as a point of resemblance to n and recommends a form 
of the first letter found in the ItaHan manuscripts that furnished the mode 
for some of the early typemakers. In this, the top is very small and the loop 
is relatively long horizontally, giving the letter the appearance at a distance 
of an inverted r: ■(.... The great legibility of v suggested that its inverted 
form, small capital A, might be substituted (after the analogy of c, o, s, v, w, 
X, and s) for the present a, and it was tested with the "old style" letter 
. . . Strangely enough, the letter with which it was most frequently con- 
fused was the a- form now in use; had that been omitted, it might have stood 
considerably higher in the list, 



114 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Dr. Cattell says that ^ is "hard to see"; and the number of times no 
answer at all was ventured for it, together with the wide scattering of its 
confusions, show him to be right. Dr. Javal, too, thinks it a rather hopeless 
case, but suggests the sharpening of its angles as a way of making it app^'oach 
the legibihty of Z. . . . Tests were made, however, on a long/, with satis- 
factory results. The long .s that is so much like / should, of course, be 
avoided, but great legibility is to be expected from a form that extends both 
above and below the line; it would, at least, put confusions with z and a out 
of the question. 

The group with which this form of .y is most prone to confusion is the long, 
narrow group, /, j, i, I, t. Of these, / and_/ are good letters when the projec- 
tions at the top of one and the bottom of the other are made heavy and long 
enough, as shown by the superiority of the Snellen / and j over the same 
letters in the alphabet from Mind. It is preferable if the .? confusion is to 
fall anywhere that it should be on these letters rather than on a and z. The 
other letters of the group are not nearly so liable to confusion with the long 
as with each other. Dr. Cattell suggests X for /, and suppression of the dot 
of the i. Dr. Javal would shorten the t and prolong its cross towards the 
left (this, however, chiefly to distinguish it from/, the cross of which is to 
be prolonged the other way) ; and he would set the dot of the i as high above 
the stem as possible, at the same time making it heavy to avoid breakage, 
and thickening the stem to match. The value of Dr. Cattell's suggestion for 
I is doubtful. The letter suggested is totally foreign to our Roman alphabet, 
and, very possibly, would be confusable with b and h as y is with p. Remov- 
ing the dot from the i would certainly make it more legible when standing 
alone, but much more confusable when with other letters in a word. . . . 
The small capital forms for L and T were put to the test with unsatisfactory 
results, partly due, perhaps, to the fact that the letters were made from parts 
of other letters set together. The t difficulty could probably be solved as 
Javal suggests, and the distinctive point of the i, the separation between the 
dot and stem, could be emphasized by making the stem shorter than the rest 
of the short letters, though this would hardly be tolerated from an aesthetic 
point of view. 

Roethlein (34) investigated by the distance method the same 
problem that Sandford undertook. Some of the main points 
emphasized by this author follow: (i) Width of letters is but 
one of several factors which contribute to legibility. (2) Legi- 
bihty is increased by heaviness of face. (3) Isolated letters are 
invariably read at a greater average distance than are those 
letters which occur in groups. (4) The varying degrees of legi- 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 115 

bility tend to be reduced to a common level, as a result of group- 
ing. (5) In groups the most legible face proved to be wholly 
undecipherable at a distance where the least legible face of iso- 
lated letters was clearly and unmistakably legible. (6) Letters 
likely to be confused with one another were rv, c e, x z, u n, 
bhk,qy, iljif, MW, HKEBD, OQCG, V Y F T, IJ L. 
(7) Certain combinations of letters were mistaken for single let- 
ters. Examples of this are as follows: Ic for k, Is for k, Ix for k, 
li for h, d for d, etc. (8) Certain letters were left out of the read- 
ings. This was especially true of slender letters like i, j, i. (9) 
The position of the letters in groups — initial, final, or interme- 
diate — is an important factor in determining the legibility of 
letters. The initial position constitutes an optimum condition 
of legibility. The final position comes next in order and the in- 
termediate position is the least favorable. 

Roethlein also gives six factors in legibility. These are as 
follows: (i) The form of the letter; (2) the size of the letter; 
(3) the heaviness of the face of the letter (the thickness of the 
lines which constitute the letter); (4) the width of the white 
margin which surrounds the letter; (5) the position of the letter 
in the letter-group; (6) the shape and size of the adjacent 
letters. In discussing these factors this author says: 

In our experiments the first factor seemed to be less significant than any 
of the other five, i.e., in the type-faces which were employed in the present 
investigation, the form of any given letter of the alphabet usually varied be- 
tween such narrow limits as to constitute a relatively insignificant factor in 
the determination of its legibility. 

The work of Dockeray (13) also deals with the legibility of 
letters. He concluded: (i) that broad letters were the most 
legible; (2) narrow letters and some of the tall ones were found 
to be less legible; (3) confusion between letters seemed to take 
a definite direction; for example, / was judged to be I oftener 
than t was judged to be /. 

Size of Print. The effect of the size of print upon perception 
has been studied by Judd (29). He had some subjects read very 



116 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

small type and others read very large type. The perceptual 
process was studied by means of photographic records of eye- 
movements while reading this material. The conclusion is 
reached that perception is not modified by changing the size of 
the type in which the reading material is printed. However, if 
the size of the type has been increased or decreased still more, 
there certainly would have come a time when the methods of 
recognition would have been changed. Such a change would 
probably have come at the time when the physiological processes 
underlying perception were changed. In other words, if some 
of the letters had become invisible, then the method of recogni- 
tion would have been modified; or if the print had become so 
large that only a part of a word could be impressed upon the 
retina at one time, then again interpretation would have been 
modified. 

It is to be regretted that these studies upon various forms and 
styles of print have had little influence upon teaching of reading. 
It is hoped that the inclusion of them in works of this kind will 
lead to a greater interest in them by those who are directly con- 
cerned with the hygiene and pedagogy of reading. There are, 
however, certain valuable suggestions growing out of these 
studies which should be noted. First, it is altogether probable 
that there are differences in text-books of reading with respect 
to the legibility of the print used. There should be definite 
means at hand for taking this element into consideration in the 
selection of readers. A second suggestion is that certain errors 
in reading may arise from the confusion of letters. If two words 
are much alike and the distinguishing characteristics depend 
upon two or more letters which are easily confused, the child 
may easily make an error in calling them. A third suggestion 
is that there are, without doubt, differences in the legibility of 
words as well as differences in the legibility of letters. Since the 
word is often the unit of perception in reading, it is evidently 
more important that the legibility of words be understood than 
that the relative value of letters be determined. This would go 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 117 

far toward giving a basis for the selection of words which should 
enter into the early vocabulary of the child. 

The Relation of Letters to the Perception of Words. The ques- 
tion may now be raised as to the relation of the various letters 
when they are grouped together in words. In his short exposure 
work, Messmer (30) found that the letters of the alphabet have 
three main characteristics. These are as follows: Horizontal 
breadth, vertical height, and geometrical form. 

The breadth of letters can be understood by thinking of the 
number of vertical strokes; n and h have two strokes, and m has 
three. In the perception of other letters like 0, c, and e, width 
doubtless plays a part. 

In regard to height of letters, three classes are to be seen, as 
follows: those of the line, like n and m; those which extend be- 
low the line, as y and p; and those which extend above the line 
as h and I. 

The differences in geometrical form of the letters can be clas- 
sified in three different ways: first, there are those made of 
curves, as and c; second, those made of vertical lines, as m and 
n; and third, those made of oblique lines, as v and x. 

The importance of these various types and forms of letters 
Hes in the fact that they give to words certain characteristics 
which aid in distinguishing one word from another. Here, again, 
it is found that these studies have had little influence upon the 
teaching of reading. Certainly, such work offers an opportunity 
for a careful evaluation of the words which enter into the early 
vocabulary of children and, doubtless, such contributions will 
be made later. 

Pillsbury (31) has investigated the relation of letters to per- 
ception from another standpoint. His work was based upon 
the short exposure of mutilated words. By mutilated words is 
meant words in which letters were omitted, letters substituted 
or letters blurred. For most of the subjects used there was a de- 
crease in the number of mutilations noticed as the mutilations 
moved through the words from the first letter to the last. That 



118 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

is, if the mutilation occurs at the first letter there is a greater 
chance that it will be detected than at any other point in the 
word. Pillsbury interprets this as follows: 

This seems to indicate a general tendency of the subject to read through 
the word from left to right, and thus to give the first letters of the word ii 
more prominent part in the recognition of the word as a whole. Conse- 
quently, a disfigurement of the first letter was easily recognized, since there 
was but sHght expectation of the word that was to come. When, however, 
the disfigurements came later in the word the expectation was greater, and 
the error more hkely to be overlooked. 

Bagley (2) has reported some experiments which deal with 
the same general problem as it is found in oral language. His 
plan was to record mutilated words and sentences upon phono- 
graph cylinders. The subjects were then allowed to listen to the 
material upon the cylinders and to report what they heard. In 
this case a mutilated word means one with one or more sounds 
omitted. In the case of monosyllabic words without context 
he finds that the elision of the initial consonant affects perception 
more than the elision of the final consonant. 

Other points brought out by Bagley are as follows: 

(i) When mutilated words are given with a minimum of context, the 
chances for their correct perception are increased by 82 per cent as compared 
with their chances for correct perception when given without context. 

(2) The fact of mutilation is readily noticed in the single words given with- 
out context, even though the word be finally correctly perceived : the elision 
is not so readily noted when the word is given with a minimum of context. 

In conclusion, it is evident that letters play a considerable 
part in the perceptual process as it is involved in reading. Most 
of the investigations in this field have not been carried far 
enough to yield practical results; but it seems evident that there 
are certain factors involved here which might serve as a basis for 
the selection of words which are to enter into the early visual 
vocabulary of the child. 

Words in their Relation to Perception. Some facts have been 
obtained which bear upon the relation that words sustain to the 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 119 

process of perception. Huey (28) has emphasized that the first 
part of a word is much more important for recognition than is 
the last part. He has also called attention to the fact that the 
upper part of the word plays a greater part in perception than 
does the lower part. Still another factor in perception cited by 
Messmer (30) is the length of words. He says that the length 
of long words is more often underestimated than overestimated. 
He also emphasizes that the accurate estimation of the length 
of a word is a very difficult process, and that the ability is de- 
veloped late. 

Sholty (37) has found that a greater percentage of sight words 
are known in context than phonetic words Miss Sholty 
thinks that, although the children with whom she dealt had had 
much drill upon phonetics, they did not see these words as wholes, 
but depended each time upon building them up by the method 
of phonetics. 

Boggs (5) has compared the number of exposures required by 
means of flash cards to learn letters, syllables, words, and sen- 
tences. This author finds that the sentence is recognized more 
often the first time then any other unit and that the word was 
recognized more often than the syllable or letter, except in one 
case, and here the difference was very small. 

Only one attempt has been made to study the errors which 
children make in their reading work from the standpoint of their 
difiiculties in the recognition of words. This study is by Bowden 
(6). She used six types of evidence in her work. These are as 
follows: First, certain incidents which happened in the class 
from day to day were considered. For example, one day when 
a child was given cards to read, it was observed that she read 
with equal ease whether the card was right side up or upside 
down. Second, comments of the children were recorded. To 
illustrate, the child was asked to find the word "shoes" in the 
context. While looking for this word, her comment was that 
the word "dress" looked so much like the word "shoes" that 
she was afraid she would make a mistake. Third, questions 



120 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

were asked in regard to the methods which the children used in 
distinguishing one word from another. To illustrate, when the 
child had mastered the words "sing" and "song" she was ques- 
tioned as to how she told the words apart. She then pointed to 
"o" and "i." Fourth, a comparison was made of the words 
learned with the words not learned as to parts of speech, geomet- 
rical form, internal form, and length. Fifth, misreadings were 
recorded; and sixth, a study was made of the interpretations 
put upon certain misprinted words as "lalci" for "lilac." 

Since this study was made with only six children, the con- 
clusions should not be taken as final; but the method is good, 
and the findings are given as indicating certain fundamental 
facts concerning reading ability. 

In regard to the parts of speech, the conclusion is reached by 
Bowden that nouns and adjectives are more easily learned than 
other types of words. It seems clear that linear words — that 
is, words which have no letters extending above or below the line 
— are learned more readily by four of the six children than 
any other type of word. It is this type of word which is said by 
Messmer (30) to be most difficult. Another fact brought out 
by Bowden concerning the form of words is that words com- 
posed for the most part of vertical lines are learned most 
easily, while words made up of curved lines are learned less 
easily. 

Bowden cites the case of one of the six children as indicating 
that short words and long words are learned most readily and 
that words of five letters give most difficulty. The conclusion 
concerning similarity of words is that length seems to be the 
element which causes most errors, while words similar on 
account of like letters come second in the number of errors. 

It is found by this same author that the children have less 
difficulty with words shown upside down than with any other 
type of mutilation. This seems to indicate that children learn 
words as wholes and that inversion makes little difference in 
recognition. Miss Bowden suggests in this connection that 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 121 

children have Httle difficulty in recognizing a toy upside down. 
Some words were mutilated by rearranging the letters without 
destroying the contour; An example of this is "nettims" for 
"mittens." This type of mutilation seemed to disturb the chil- 
dren a little more than did inversion. Other words were muti- 
lated by the substitution of letters. This form of words was 
recognized much more often than were the other forms of 
mutilations noted above. 

Other mutilations, as those which change length and contour 
of words, have difficulties attending them; that is, to change the 
length of a word required the leaving out of a letter, so that 
not only the length of the word is changed, but also the content 
of the word is altered. Experiments of these kinds have shown 
that children are sensitive to such changes. 

Finally, the author says: 

The comments and questions as well as the misreadings seemed to show- 
that children learn to read words by the trial and error method. It may be 
the length of the word, the initial letter, the final letter, a characteristic 
letter, the position of the word in the sentence, or even the blackness of the 
type that serves as the cue. . . . There is no evidence in any of the cases 
studied that the child works out a system by which he learns to recognize 
words. . . . 

Under the methods of instruction employed with this class as outHned 
above, it appears that these beginners in reading have after two months or 
more of instruction secured a sufi&cient conception of the general appearance 
of a very Kmited number of words to recognize them as wholes, that in doing 
this they made use of only very general cues or points of differentiation be- 
tween words and parts of words. It appeared very doubtful to the experi- 
menter whether, under this method of teaching words as visual wholes, 
the pupils would, of themselves, have come to make this latter necessary 
analysis with much success. 

Some details concerning the analytic process emphasized by 
Bowden have been given by Hamilton (25). The data upon 
this point were collected by means of the short-exposure experi- 
ment. The subjects were required to report in detail upon that 
part of the material which was perceived in the margin of their 



122 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

consciousness and about which they were uncertain. The pas- 
sage quoted below gives the points determined by this author: 

The following five distinctions, or partial readings, were frequently noted: 
(i) Partial substitutions. By partial substitution is meant any reading in 
which one or more letters were found in common between the word actually 
present and the one which was substituted for it. (2) Total substitutions. 
By a total substitution is meant a case where there was no letter in common, 
the only point of identity being the general appearance of the word present 
and the one substituted for it. (3) Correct forms of words. In this case the 
subject could not make a judgment as to what the word was, but was able 
to describe its general appearance, perhaps giving the number of letters and 
a general description of the letters, such as their shape, size, and position 
within the word. (4) Incorrect form. Here the subject saw clearly the word 
impression as a whole, but failed to describe correctly the form or size of the 
word, the number of letters, etc. (5) No form. In many cases, subjects 
were certain of the presence of one or more words in the margin, of whose 
form they could report nothing whatever. In such cases, they were abso- 
lutely certain of the numerical aspect of the words present in the margin, 
though they could give no other quantitative characteristic, and nothing 
whatever of the specific qualitative character. 

It is not too foreign to the topic in hand to emphasize that the 
work which has been done upon the relation of words to percep- 
tion evidently has considerable importance in the correction of 
the mistakes in oral reading. There is no doubt but that the time 
given to oral reading is to be reduced and that the work which 
is done in it is to have a much more definite aim. One modifica- 
tion in the methods of teaching oral reading which would be of 
very great value relates to the plan for correcting errors. It 
should be clearly understood by the teacher that many mistakes 
have a definite meaning and a definite reason. If a rational 
system of dealing with these errors were provided, the error 
would not be repeated many times. In the past, teachers have 
been content merely to call attention to the error while the 
child continues to make the same type of error week after week. 
It seems, sometimes, as if children are called upon to read in 
order that their teacher may determine whether all the errors 
which they are accustomed to make in reading are present. 



QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 123 

The Length of Lines. Another factor which seems to influence 
rate of reading is the length of the hnes in which the material 
to be read is printed. Dearborn (ii) has presented evidence to 
show that a line about one third longer than the usual news- 
paper line is one which has distinct advantages. According to 
this author, the most efficient reading is done where rhythmical 
movements of the eyes can be easily established and where there 
is opportunity for the continuation of such movements after 
they are initiated. Rhythm, as defined by this investigator, has 
in it two elements. The first of these elements requires that 
there be the same number of pauses for the different lines read. 
The second element requires that the long and short pauses of 
the eye arrange themselves in a definite order. This order of the 
pauses usually begins with one longer than those that follow and 
is succeeded by a secondary increase in their length toward the 
end of the line. 

Rhythm can be established most easily in the reading of short 
lines because peripheral vision can function best under these 
conditions. This is true because with lines of this type there is 
allowed a prevision of the greater part of their length, while if 
the lines are long no such prevision can take place. The partial 
interpretation allowed by prevision makes it possible for the 
reader to proceed much more rapidly along the line than if the 
partial interpretations were not present. Peripheral vision can 
also function better in an up-and-down direction in the case of 
short lines than in the case of long lines. This is true because in 
the long lines the meaning of the material above or below the 
line being read is apt to be so far removed from the meaning of 
the line on which the eye is focused that peripheral vision can 
be of very little assistance. In his discussion of this point, Dear- 
born has also called attention to the fact that many text-books 
are printed with lines of varying lengths. Such printing does 
not allow rhythmical movements of the eyes to be established 
easily and readily. The different lengths of lines result many 
times from the insertion of illustrations on the pages in a manner 



124 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

which breaks the Hnes into small parts. The discussion of this 
point by Dearborn has done much to improve text-books in 
this respect. 

Another View of the Qualitative Factors in Perception. It has 
been emphasized that there are qualitative differences in 
material which make for differences in perception. Certain 
individual pupils have been shown to be more sensitive to such 
differences than are others. This is equivalent to saying that the 
perception of differences in words depends upon a special 
ability. This ability is a type of observation. The same kind 
of mental activity is used by the geologist who notes small 
differences in stones, as well as by many other scientists in their 
daily work. Such skilled observation grows out of practice and 
knowledge. From this standpoint the pupil who observes 
critically and sees small differences between words, other 
things being equal, is the most efficient reader. Primary 
teachers recognize that there are differences in children in their 
ability to recognize such differences in words. Many studies 
have been made which show clearly that children are very 
inaccurate in their perception of phenomena about them. 
The very inaccurate observations made by children in other 
respects suggests the probability of inaccuracies in their percep- 
tion of words. They must be made accurate and practiced in 
their observation of words. They must be made expert in this 
type of observation, just as the biologist or the geologist in his 
observations. 

Another consideration which adds to the difficulty here is that 
the differences between words are not very great. If words 
differed greatly in their form special training would not be neces- 
sary. One purpose of phonics is to give the child the ability to 
detect differences between words so that his observation of such 
differences may be made systematic. This is fundamentally a 
process of analysis and is necessarily tedious and slow at first, 
but experience and training make it both rapid and accurate. 

The qualitative phases of perception may be summarized 



' QUALITATIVE PHASES OF PERCEPTION 125 

under five heads, as follows: (i) Material when grouped and 
arranged in one order may have meaning while the same ma- 
terial arranged in a different manner may become nonsense 
material. (2) There are differences in letters and words which 
make certain ones more legible than others. (3) Differences in 
letters and words must be accurately perceived if efficiency in 
reading is to be obtained. (4) Slight changes in the size of print 
do not affect the process of perception. (5) The length of lines 
is an element in the perceptual phases of reading. (6) Accuracy 
in reading depends upon the ability to perceive accurately and 
readily the small differences which exist between printed lan- 
guage forms. 



CHAPTER VI 

METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS: DIAGNOSIS 
BASED UPON PERCEPTION 

It remains to deal with perception as a process. Certain 
suggestions which have been given upon the problem will be 
elaborated and others added. Experimental data will be con- 
sidered first. 

Upon the basis of his experiments, Messmer (30) has divided 
readers into two classes, as follows: subjective and objective. 
Readers of the objective type depend upon the dominating 
letters in a very large degree. Their span of perception is very 
limited, but their accuracy is high. This indicates that they do 
not depend upon the total form of the word in any large degree 
but that their familiarity with the word depends upon analysis. 
These points, taken in connection with other facts concerning 
perception, indicate that there are two types of readers who have 
a short span of perception. First, there are those whose native 
ability is such that their span is very short; and second, there 
are those whose span is short because they must have many 
different cues before the process of interpretation is started. 
The second class is of great interest to teachers, because training 
may produce this type. Messmer states that there may be a 
contraction of the span of perception after the eleventh year, 
and a revision to the objective type. It would seem, too, that 
continual dealing with small units, as is true in the case of oral 
reading, may fix habits which would lead to extreme forms of 
the objective type. 

The subjective type neglects the dominating letters and 
depends upon the total form. The attention of this type is 
designated as wandering. As a result, there is not a strict ad- 

126 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 127 

herence to the objective material. There is also a large asso- 
ciative contribution made by such readers in the interpretation 
of printed material. Their reading is rapid, but it is not ac- 
curate. Again, it seems that there are two types of readers with 
a long span of perception. First, there are those whose span is 
long on account of native ability. Second, there are those 
whose span is long because their interpretative processes are 
set going by a small number of cues. Whether this second 
type is produced by training is not known. The method of in- 
terpretation used by these readers may grow out of carelessness. 
It would seem also that the child who reads a great deal and so 
develops the habit of rapid reading might develop those tenden- 
cies which would put him in the subjective class. 

The efi&cient reader must be guided in an accurate way by the 
objective material, but, at the same time, this must be dealt 
with in large units. This means that interpretation will proceed 
sometimes by guessing, sometimes by association, and some- 
times by reasoning, and probably in other ways not well under- 
stood. There must be freedom in dealing with the objective 
material. This is not a freedom which runs riot, but rather a 
freedom which grows out of a wide experience with language 
forms. Such experience results in a familiarity with language 
which allows the interpretative process to proceed rapidly and 
easily. 

A comparison of some of the results obtained by various tach- 
istoscopic investigations is also of interest in dealing with per- 
ception as a process. The work of Cattell (9) previously men- 
tioned was followed by that of Goldscheider and Mliller (21). 
These authors called attention to the significant fact that the 
unit of perception might vary with conditions. Their state- 
ment was that the unit might be at one time a word, and at 
another a phrase or a short sentence, and at still another a letter. 
The change in the unit, according to these authors, was due to 
the degree of familiarity of the material read and to the purpose 
of the reader. These investigators also held that perception 



128 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

was mediated by certain characteristic letters rather than by- 
word wholes. 

This point was disputed by the next investigators in this 
field, Erdmann and Dodge (i6). These writers were skeptical 
of the application of the results of Cattell and Goldscheider and 
Miiller to reading, because the exposure time used by them had 
been much shorter than the perception time involved in reading. 
More nearly to meet the conditions of reading Erdmann and 
Dodge adopted an exposure time of one tenth of a second. 
With this modification of the technique, they came to the con- 
clusion that the total word form is essential to the perceptual 
process rather than characteristic letters as emphasized by 
Goldscheider and Miiller. 

The work of Erdmann and Dodge was followed by a theoreti- 
cal discussion of Wundt (40) in which he asserted that the per- 
ception of long words must be conditioned by a movement of the 
attention over them. Zeitler (40) then undertook to demon- 
strate experimentally this theory of Wundt's. He gave over 
sLx thousand exposures and used a very short perception time. 
He agreed with Goldscheider and Miiller in their theory that 
perception is mediated by characteristic letters rather than 
total word forms. He also elaborated Wundt's theory that 
perception is conditioned by a movement of attention over the 
word when the words are long. The results upon this point 
were procured, largely, by introspection. The movement of 
attention apparently varied with different lengths of words and 
with different exposure times. Dodge (14) criticizes these in- 
trospections in the following words: 

It becomes evident, from the whole discussion, that the objective succes- 
sion, and the wandering of the attention actually found in consciousness are 
in reality not a function of the visual apprehension but of the motor acoustic 
interpretation of the visual presentation. 

Zeitler says that a word may be read in two ways. First, 
there is apperceptive reading. This type of perception is an 
immediate process conditioned by the objective material. 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 129 

Second, there is assimilative reading. This is a mediate process 
and requires some time for its accomphshment. 

The next investigator in the field was Becker (4). He agreed 
with Erdmann and Dodge and Cattell that perception is medi- 
ated by word wholes and that there is no wandering of the 
attention. The last investigator who worked upon this problem 
by means of the short-exposure experiment is Messmer (30). 
His investigation was elaborate and his conclusions agree sub- 
stantially with those of Goldscheider and Miiller and Zeitler. 

The problem of whether the perception of words involves a 
movement of attention over them was later attacked by Dear- 
born (11). His data were collected by means of eye-movement 
records rather than by means of the tachistiscope. He assumes 
that in work of this type movements of attention are accom- 
panied by movements of the eyes. His first experiment con- 
sisted in photographing the eyes while short phrases and sen- 
tences were perceived. It was thought that if there was a 
wandering of attention in the perception of this material, such 
movements would show in movements of the eyes. The re- 
sults were negative. A later experiment consisted in photo- 
graphing the eyes while numbers composed of four or five digits 
were read. Very marked movements of the eyes were found in 
this experiment. This is taken as evidence that the numbers 
were perceived by a wandering of the attention over them. 
Dearborn argues that if the recognition of words involved suc- 
cessive acts of perception there would also appear movements 
in the records of the eyes taken while perception of this type 
was in progress. 

In certain instances this author found movements of the 
eyes which can best be described as small shifting movements. 
Such movements would seem to indicate successive acts of 
perception, but he explains these findings as the result of slow 
assimilation. 

To Dearborn most of the wandering of attention cited by the 
various authors previously mentioned means only a shortening 



130 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

of the span of perception. If there is success in forming unitary 
groups, the span is large; but if there is failure in forming such 
groups, the span of perception is reduced to the point where 
some type of grouping can be accomplished. 

This brief survey indicates rather clearly that the various 
investigators have emphasized two types of perception or two 
phases of the same process. One of these seems to be immediate 
and instantaneous, while the other is a process which is some- 
what retarded. The dispute in regard to this matter has cen- 
tered about the nature of the perceptive act of the second type. 
The particular point which has been so strongly contested, is 
whether in perception of this type there is a wandering of at- 
tention, and if so, what is the nature of such movements of the 
attention. Critics apparently do not object so much to the 
statement of Zeitler and others that there is a movement of 
attention over the words, but rather to the statement that this 
movement is from letter to letter even if these letters are the 
dominating or characteristic ones rather than successive ones. 

In this connection Dodge (15) may be quoted again, as 
follows : 

To speak of the perception of a word in ordinary reading as a successive 
process seems to be altogether in harmony with the facts. In general, it 
would be difficult to conceive of a process in which there was no succession, 
and we have demonstrated experimentally that the perceptual processes in 
reading may begin one or more fixations before the specific word is directly 
fixated — if indeed it ever is fixated. But to insist that this succession in 
the perceptual processes necessarily involves a successive apprehension of 
letter units seems to me as absurd as would be the contention that we cannot 
perceive a house without a successive apprehension of the clapboards and 
shingles, at least the "dominating" ones. To insist on the other hand that 
such a successive apprehension of the letters is impossible would be equally 
absurd, provided they fell within the area of relatively clear vision. 

Those who have emphasized perception as an immediate act 
have used, to a large extent (not always), easy and familiar 
material, whereas the wandering of attention was found by 
Zeitler in such words as " taubstiimmenlehrer." From this, it 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 131 

seems that the point at issue is the difference between the per- 
■ ception of familiar material, on the one hand, and the per- 
ception of unfamiliar material on the other. 

From a slightly different standpoint it appears that the 
fundamental problem at hand is the difference between per- 
ception as a synthetic process and perception as an analytical 
process. The place and the value of the analytical phases of 
perception have been well brought out by Hamilton (25) as 
follows : 

In the majority of cases, little further analysis is necessary, the general 
characteristics of the word being the principal cue by which it is recognized. 
But when some unfavorable condition arises or when the words are strange 
or difficult, additional distinctions within the word are required, in which 
case the parts of the word must be brought more or less clearly to conscious- 
ness according to the degree of the complexity or unfamiHarity. It is prob- 
able, however, that a certain amount of literal analysis always takes place in 
some of the words, even under the most favorable conditions, owing to the pe- 
culiar structure of the visual apparatus, to the chance direction of the attention, 
and to the prominence of certain letters due to their size, peculiar structure, 
or to their more or less favorable position within the word. But, as a rule, 
conscious resort to such analysis occurs only when the word presents some 
special difficulty and spontaneous recognition by means of the more general 
attributes of the word fails. The form of procedure may, therefore, be 
described as predominantly synthetic-analytic, the amount of analysis 
tending in general to decrease with growth in ability and with increasing 
familiarity with the material read. Something doubtless depends upon the 
peculiar mental habits of the individual, possibly also upon the methods 
employed in learning to read. 

In conclusion, it is probably true that the fundamental 
character of this analytical type of perception is not thoroughly 
understood. Indeed, as Dodge ha'; pointed out, it may be that 
the short-exposure method is not the best method to be used in 
the investigation of this problem. However, that there is a 
real problem here which has very great importance in reading 
ability and in the training of children will not be denied by any 
one and, without doubt, it will have further light shed upon it 
by investigations of -the future. 



132 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

In addition to the experimental evidence which has just been 
cited, there are certain very common experiences in the per- 
ception of words which may be easily observed, and which are 
of interest at this time. A few of these will be discussed. In 
this connection, a comparison of the recognition of people and 
the perception of words may be made. If we are asked how we 
distinguish between a giant and a dwarf, it is difficult to tell, 
because the differences are so great and so many that any 
systematization of them is hard to make. On the other hand, 
if twins come among our acquaintances, the matter of differences 
becomes a real problem and it is necessary that some point or 
points of difference be found, if confusion is to be avoided. In 
some cases, these differences ma> be reduced to a single one, 
as the length of an ear lobe, or some other small detail. Even 
after such a characteristic is determined upon, it is difficult 
to remember which one of the twins possesses the distinguishing 
characteristic. 

Likewise there are giants and dwarfs among the words in our 
vocabulary, and there are other words so much alike that they 
may be thought of as twins. To illustrate, it would be a very 
rare case when difficulty arose in distinguishing such words as 
"consciousness" and "ox." There may be inherent difficulties 
in each, but there is nothing which would lead to a confusion 
of the two. If all differences between words were this great, 
they would present few difficulties, and learning words syntheti- 
cally would suffice for all reading. 

On the other hand, two words like what and that or the and 
they may be twins in the mind of the child, and in order to avoid 
confusion the child must learn just where to look for the distin- 
guishing characteristic. It will be seen that such a process 
involves trained observation such as is exhibited by naturalists. 
It requires analysis and is acquired only after training and 
experience. 

Again, it is a common experience that one may know a person 
in a certain environment and not know the same person in 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 133 

another environment; for example, it is possible to consult a 
professional man in his ofl&ce several times, and not recognize 
him later on the street or in the club. When such a person is 
met outside the office, there may be a feeling of vague familiarity 
concerning him but nothing definite about the previous experi- 
ences. The same point holds with respect to words. A child 
may know a word perfectly well on one page in certain sur- 
roundings, but on the next page, when the word is seen in new 
surroundings, he may be utterly unable to recognize it. This 
is a common experience with those who are learning to read a 
foreign language. They may be able to recognize and use a 
word on one page of a text-book, but when the same word is 
found on another page in a different sentence or paragraph, 
they fail completely to recognize it. This emphasizes the fact 
that, in dealing with words, a vague feeling of familiarity will 
not suffice. The mental operation must be on a plane of recog- 
nition which involves details of knowledge. 

Furthermore, it is possible to recognize a person who has 
his hat on and fail to do so when this person has his hat ofif; 
or it is possible to recognize a friend dressed in one suit and 
fail to do so if the suit is changed. In the same manner, if a 
word is learned first with its diacritical markings, it may not be 
recognized without these markings. Besides, a child may 
recognize the word "hit" and may be able to deal with it in an 
intelligent manner, but "hits" may be a stumbling block. 
Not only may the child fail to recognize the word, but he may 
also fail to see anything in it which is familiar. This only serves 
to emphasize the fact that the recognition of words is a highly 
specialized activity. Each word is an individual, and some- 
times conditions are such that recognition takes place entirely 
as a synthetic process, while other words may be of such a nature 
that perception must begin with analysis. 

Though there are many more experiences of this t3rpe, the 
foregoing are sufficient to give teachers a basis for the recog- 
nition and classification of many activities which enter into the 



134 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

perception of words. If these experiences and others similar 
to them were more often taken into consideration by teachers, 
their work in reading would be placed upon a different basis. 
The last point to be emphasized in this connection is that 
perception is an act and, as such, involves many of the elements 
of habit. In, discussing this point, Huey (28) makes two 
general observations, as follows: 

(i) Perceiving being an act, it is, like all other things that we do, per- 
formed more easily with each repetition of the act. (2) Again, as in the per- 
formance of any act, a perception may involve more and more complex con- 
stituent acts as these are progressively welded together by practice, and 
especially as they become synthesized to a total performance which may be 
set off from a single consciousness cue. 

In summarizing the chapter, it may be emphasized that the 
nature of perception as an act is not well understood by either 
psychologists or teachers of reading. That phase of the per- 
ceptive act which seems least understood and at the same time 
highly important in the reading process is analytical in its nature. 
There is here a field for further investigation which promises 
to throw very helpful light upon the problems of reading. 

The Diagnosis of Reading Ability 

Analysis as a Basis for Diagnosis. The discussion in the last 
three chapters re\eals at least two types of ability which are 
fundamental to the reading process. These are the span of 
perception and ability in observation. 

Tests to be Employed. Two tests suggest themselves at this 
point. These are the voice-eye test as employed by Quantz and 
the short-exposure test. Each of these can easily be con- 
ducted, as will be shown in a later chapter. These tests will 
serve as a basis for the interpretation of results which are 
obtained, upon rate and upon comprehension, by the standards 
of oral and silent reading tests previously discussed. 

Interpretation. The discussion of perception has made the 
following contributions to the problems suggested in the earlier 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 135 

chapters: (i) The knowledge of isolated words is of two kinds. 
First, a word may be known as a unit or as a whole; and second, 
the knowledge of words may be based upon analysis. (2) Mis- 
pronunciations and substitutions may result from mistakes in 
perception. In such cases, the pupil does not have the ability 
to detect small differences between the words. This lack of 
ability may be due to lack of knowledge concerning the details 
of word forms or to a habit which neglects details. (3) The rate 
of reading has been shown to depend upon the length of the span 
of perception, and upon familiarity with language forms. 
(4) The laws of perception show that if the span of perception 
is long, so that the units by which interpretation proceeds are 
large, comprehension is very much enhanced. On the other 
hand, if the span is short and the unit small, comprehension is 
retarded. Again, interpretation may be inaccurate because the 
ability to observe differences in words is not present. It has 
also been suggested that the development of the span of per- 
ception gives rise to certain difficulties in comprehension. That 
is, the short span of the early years of the child requires one 
method of interpretation, and the longer span resulting from 
maturity and training makes a more efficient method of inter- 
pretation possible. The transition period from the first to the 
second may involve difficulties for certain children. (5) The 
relation between rate of reading and comprehension has been 
shown to depend upon the span of perception. A long span 
of perception makes for a rapid rate of reading and a high 
efficiency in interpretation. A limited span of perception makes 
for a slow rate of reading and inefficient interpretation. Read- 
ing which is efficient or inefficient in both rate and compre- 
hension can be explained, then, in terms of the length of the 
span of perception. For those cases where a slow rate is com- 
bined with high efficiency in interpretation, or where a high 
rate is combined with an inefficient method of interpretation, 
these chapters have some contributions to make. It seems that 
readers of the first tj^je depend too much upon the external 



136 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

stimuli, or they require a large number of stimuli to start the 
process of interpretation. On the other hand, readers of the 
second type interpret upon the basis of too few stimuli. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. From the standpoint of developing the span of perception, training by 
means of flash cards would seem to be an excellent procedure. What pre- 
cautions are necessary in order to be sure that such training functions in the 
reading work? How could the technique of such work be improved? 

2. What objections are there to having children study words with dia- 
critical marks? 

3. What suggestions can you give for developing the span of perception 
in the first and second grades? Would requiring children to look up from 
their books while reading be of benefit? 

4. What is the effect of holding the book too near the eyes? 

5. Make a list, say, of one hundred errors made by your pupils and study 
them in the light of the laws of perception. What are the causes of each 
error from the standpoint of perception? 

6. Can you cite cases where differences in reading ability were due to 
differences in the span of perception as indicated by a child's ability to look 
up from his book while reading? 

7. Can you cite cases where differences in the reading ability were due 
to differences in observational abilities? 

8. If the old alphabet method succeeded in teaching children to read, 
why is it criticized so seriously? 

9. Does the child have to know the alphabet in order to read? Why ? 

10. In the light of the preceding chapters, what are the objections to 
place-keeping devices? Are these objections valid with regard to a ruler or 
a sheet of paper marking the entire line? 

11. Can you give devices for developing observational abihty with respect 
to letters and words? 

12. Would you attempt to explain any of the laws of perception to chil- 
dren? If so, what ones? 

13. From the standpoint of the laws of perception, how should omissions 
be dealt with? Insertions? 

14. Could Quantz's form of the voice-eye test be used as a means for de- 
veloping the span of perception? Would it be feasible to allow children to 
use this test one with another? 

15. How could you tell if a child's difficulty consisted in the use of too 
long a span of perception? 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 137 

Bibliography 

1. Aiken, C, Methods of Mind Training. New York, 1896. Pp. no. 

2. Bagley, W. C, The Apperception of the Spoken Sentence. Am. Jl. Psy., 

1901, 12, 20-130. 

3. Baxt, N., tjber die Zeit, welche notig ist, damit ein Gesichtseindruck zum 

Bewustsein konunt. Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (Pfliiger), 1871, 4, 325- 
326. 

4. Becher, E., Experimentelle und kritische Beitrage zur Psychologie des 

Lesens bei kurzen Expositionszeiten. (Diss., Bonn.) Ztsch.f. Psych., 
1904, 34, 19-37- 

5. Boggs, L. P., How Children Learn to Read: An Experimental Study. 

Ped. Sem., 1905, 12, 496-502. 

6. Bowden, J. H., Learning to Read. Elem. Sch. Tr., 1911, 12, 21-33. 

7. Brucke, E., tjber den Nutzeffect intermittirender Netzhautreizungen. 

Berichte der Wienes Akad. der Wissenschaft, Bd. 49, 1864, abth. 2, 
128-153. 

8. Buswell, G. T., An Experimental Study of the Eye-voice Span in Reading. 

(Supp. Educ. Monog. No. 17.) Chicago, The University of Chicago, 
1920. 

9. Cattell, J. M., The Inertia of the Eye and Brain. Brain, 1885, 8, 295- 

313. Mind, 1886, II, 220-242, 377-387, 524-538. Ueber die Zeit 
der Erkennung und Benennung von Schriftzeichen, Bildern, und 
Farben. Phil. Stud., 1885, 2, 635-650. Mental Association Inves- 
tigated by Experimentation. Mind, 1889, 14, 230-250. 

10. Cattell, J. M., The Time it Takes to See and Name Objects. Mind, 

1886, II, 63-65. 

11. Dearborn, W. F., The Psychology of Reading. (Col. Cont. to Phil, and 

Psy. 14, No. I.) 1906. Pp. 134. 

12. DaUenback, K. M., The Effect of Practice upon Visual Apprehension in 

School Children. Jl. Educ. Psy. 1914, 5, 321-334, 387-404. 

13. Dockeray, F. C, The Span of Vision in Reading and the Legibility of 

Letters. Jl. Educ. Psy., 1910, i, 123-131. 

14. Dodge, R., Reading. Psy. Rev., 1901, 8, 56-60. 

15. Dodge, R., An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation. Psy. Rev., 

Monog. Supp., 1907, 8, No. 4. Pp. xv + 95. 

16. Erdmann, B., und Dodge, R., Psychologische Untersuchimgen uher das 

Lesen auf experimenteller Grundlage. Halle, 1898. 

17. Exner, S., Uber die zu einer Gesichtswahrnehmung notige Zeit. Sitz- 

ungsher. d. k. Acad. d. Wissensch. in Wien, 1868, 58, 601-632. 

18. Foster, W. S., The Effect of Practice upon Visualizing and upon the 

Reproduction of Visual Impressions. Jl. Educ. Psy., 1911, 2, 11-12. 



138 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

19. Freeman, F. N., Aufmerksamkeitsumfang und ZahlaufiFassung bei 

Kindern und Erwachsenen. Arbeit, a. d. Inst. f. Psy. und exp. Pad. 
Band i, Leipzig, Alfred Hahn. Grouped Objects as a Basis for the 
Number Idea. Elem. Sck. Tr., 1912, 12, 306-314. 

20. Gates, A. I., The Mnemonic Span for Visual and Auditory Digits. Jl. 

Exp. Psy., 1916, I, 393-403. 

21. Goldscheider, A. und Mueller, E., Zur Psychologie und Pathologie des 

Lesens. Zeitsch.f. kiln. Med., 1893, 23, 131-167. 

22. Gray, C. T., Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited Through Tests and 

Laboratory Experiments. (Supp. Educ. Monog., i. No. 5.) Chicago, 
University of Chicago Press, 191 7. Pp. xiv+196. 

23. Grifi&ng, H., On the Development of Visual Perception and Attention. 

Am. Jl. Psy., 1895, 7, 227-236. 

24. Grififing, H., and Franz, S. I., On the Conditions of Fatigue in Reading. 

Psy. Rev., 1896, 3, 513-520. 

25. Hamilton, F. M., The Perceptual Factors in Reading. Arch, of Psy. 

New York, Columbia University, 1907, i. No. 9. Pp. 56. 

26. Helmholtz, H., Handbook of Phy. Optik. 9, Zweite Am gearbeitete 

Auflage, 1896, s. 514. 

27. Huey, E. B., On the Psychology and Physiology of Reading. Am. Jl. 

Psy., 1900, II, 283-303. 

28. Huey, E. B., The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. New York, The 

Macmillan Co., 1913. Pp. xvi + 469. 

29. Judd, C. H., Reading: Its Nature and Development. (Supp. Educ. 

Monog.) Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1918, 2, No. i. 
Pp. xiv + 192. 

30. Messmer, O., Zur Psychologie des Lesens bei Kindern und Erwachsenen. 

Arch. f. d. ges. Psy., 1903, 2, 190-298. 

31. Pillsbury, W. B., A Study in Apperception. A^n. Jl. Psy., 1897, 8, 315- 

393- 

32. Plateau, Bulletin de I'Academie Royale de Bruxelles, Tome 2, 1836. Pp. 

84-89. 

33. Quantz, J. O., Problems in the Psychology of Reading. Psy. Rev. Monog. 

Supp., 1897, 2, 1-51. 

34. Roethlein, B. E., The Relative Legibility of Different Faces of Printing 

Types. Am. Jl. Psy., 1912, 23, 1-36. 

35. Ruediger, W. C, Field of Distinct Vision. Arch, of Psy. New York, 

Columbia University, 1907, i. No. 4. Pp. 68. 

36. Sandford, E. C, The Relative LegibiUty of the Small Letters. Am. Jl. 

Psy., 1888, I, 402-435. 

37. Sholty, M., A Study of the Reading Vocabulary of Children. El. Sch. 

Tr., 1912, 12, 272-277. 



METHODS OF PERCEIVING WORDS 139 

38. Starch, D., Educational Psychology. New York, The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1919. Pp. ix + 473. 

30. Whipple, Z. M., The Effect of Practice upon the Range of Visual Atten- 
tion. Jl. Educ. Psy., 1910, I, 249-262. 

40. Wundt, Zur Kritic Tachistoskopischer Versuche. Phil. Stud., 1900, 15, 

287-317; 16, 61-70. 

41. Zeitler, J., Tachistoskopische Untersuchungen iiber das Lesen. PhiL 
Stud., 1900, 16, 380-465. 



C. THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY FROM THE 
STANDPOINT OF THE MOTOR PROCESSES IN- 
VOLVED ' 

CHAPTER VII 
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR COORDINATIONS 

General psychology has emphasized in many ways the im- 
portance "which attaches to various motor activities as they are 
related to different mental processes. Only casual observation 
is necessary to show that the mental processes involved in read- 
ing are accompanied by motor activities which are of such a 
character as to demand careful study. To illustrate, if one 
observes silent reading, it will be noted that movements of the 
eyes are always present. In addition to this, the silent reading 
of many children shows the presence of vocal reactions and 
extraneous movements. If oral reading is observed it will be 
found that eye-movements are present, that vocalization move- 
ments are more pronounced than in silent reading, that the 
breathing movements are coordinated in a way not to be noted 
in ordinary breathing, and that there may also be certain 
extraneous movements. 

It is the purpose of the writer in the next four chapters to 
study the motor elements of the reading process. This will 
result in an analysis of reading ability such as is required by 
diagnosis. The topics with which the discussion is concerned 
may be classified as follows: 

I. Vocal movements 

A. The organs of speech and their coordinations 

B. Rate of vocalization 

C. Vocalization during si|ent reading 

D. Breathing movements in oral reading 

140 



THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 141 

II. Non -vocal movements 

A. Eye-movements 

B. Extraneous movements 

The discussion will now pass to a consideration of the problem 
suggested in the title of the present chapter. Reading makes 
use of all the organs involved in speech. The control of these 
various organs is acquired very early by the child, and as a result 
little or no instruction is necessary in the primary grades with 
respect to the coordinations required in this phase of reading. 
Because of this, few teachers realize that speech is a highly 
complicated process involving many muscles which are so co- 
ordinated as to allow highly specialized and delicate movements 
to be made. However, if one is called upon to instruct a deaf 
and dumb child in oral speech, the complexity of the process is 
brought clearly to mind, because such instructions must be 
based upon a thorough analysis of the speaking activity. Fol- 
lowing such an analysis, directions must be given for the use 
of the various organs of speech so that the child may be able 
to employ them . in the proper order and in the proper way. 
Such methods are made necessary, in the case of the deaf and 
dumb child, by the fact that the muscular control involved in 
speech is not acquired through the ear. 

Again, a teacher of phonics encounters a problem similar to 
that in the instruction of the deaf and dumb. To be able to 
deal with words successfully, as required by phonics, the child 
must know the sound of each letter and the proper coordinations 
of the muscles required to make the sound. The difficulty in 
this operation lies in the fact that the child has learned to make 
these sounds not as separated one from another, but rather as 
connected and related to other sounds. The relations which 
exist between the different sounds which go to make up a word 
lead some authorities to think that, instead of there being a 
series of motor impulses which produce the different movements 
involved in making sounds as they occur one after the other in 
a word, there is only a single stimulus for an entire word. If 



142 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

this be true, the problem of the child in phonics becomes one of 
analysis, in that he must be able to divide words into their com- 
ponent sounds. This must be followed by the coordination of 
muscles in the speech organs in order that the single sound may 
be made. Even if the child is able to make a sound in connec- 
tion with other sounds, his ability to make it singly is not assured. 
The composite nature of speech has been stressed by both 
Scripture (32) and Sweet (37). Scripture holds that speech is 
continuous in nature, and that there are no breaks which cor- 
respond to letters, syllables, and words. In this connection he 
says: 

A word is a continuous series of an infinite number of sounds and the 
letters indicate in an incomplete fashion nothing more than certain charac- 
teristic points of this series. 

In discussing the same general problem. Sweet says that the 
only divisions made in speech are those which divide it into 
"breath-groups." Within these breath-groups there are no 
pauses. According to this author, variations in force or stress 
make it appear that the flow of speech is broken into parts. 
It must also be true that the many changes in pitch which are 
involved in speech produce the same effect upon the hearer. 

As a basis for further discussion, the problem will be divided 
into two parts, as follows: (i) the description of the organs of 
speech, and (2) the coordination of these organs as they function 
in reading. 

The Organs of Speech. These organs may be enumerated as 
follows : the larynx, the pharynx, vocal cords, soft palate, upper 
and lower jaws, lips, tongue, nasal passages, certain cavities in 
the bones of the head, and the breathing apparatus. 

The Breath. In making any single sound the function of the 
breathing apparatus is to force the air through the different 
speech organs. In passing through these organs it comes in 
contact with different obstructions. It is this contact of the 
air with the speaking parts acting as obstructions which pro- 
duces the sounds that compose a language. 



THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 143 

The Larynx and Pharynx. One use of both the larynx and 
the pharynx is to serve as a passageway for the air from the 
lungs. A second use emphasized by certain authors is that they 
serve as resonance cavities for the sounds made by other organs. 

The larynx has one other important function. It contains 
the vocal cords. The cords are not bands, as it is usually 
thought, but can better be described as cushions composed of 
connective and muscular tissue. The larynx is composed of a 
number of cartilages, and it is to these that the cords are at- 
tached. The various muscles of the larynx help to change the 
shape of the cords. It is the cords which offer the first resist- 
ance to the air as it passes from the lungs. If they are in the 
proper shape and have the proper tension, they set the air to 
vibrating, and the result is a sound. If the air rushes through 
the cords without being made to vibrate and meets other ob- 
structions later, the result may be a whisper instead of a tone. 
A whisper, then, is oral language minus the sounds made by the 
vocal cords. The particular sound which is made by the vocal 
cords depends in a large measure upon the shape of the opening 
between them. The control of the movements of the cords is 
almost entirely an unconscious process, so that instruction 
plays only a small part in the development of such reactions. 

The Tongue. The function of the tongue is to change the 
shape of the mouth cavity. These changes modify the re- 
sistance offered to the air as it passes through the mouth. In 
the sound "ah" the tongue is flat on the bottom of the mouth, 
while in the short sound of "i" the back of the tongue is raised 
and the tip is drawn backward. In some other sounds, as that 
of the letter "t," the tongue is first placed against the teeth and 
then suddenly withdrawn. This organ is probably the most 
mobile of any of the speech organs. The accurate use of the 
tongue is a phase of phonics which often gives children diffi- 
culty. These difficulties are lessened many times by drawings 
and charts which show the proper positions of this organ for 
particular sounds. 



144 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

The Lips. These organs also have the general purpose of 
changing the shape of the passage through which the air must 
pass. In making the vowel sounds they have the shape of an 
oval. The size of the oval varies from sound to sound. In the 
sound "ah" the opening of the lips is larger than is required in 
any other vowel sounds, while in short double "o" it is much 
smaller. In some sounds the lips are first entirely closed and 
then suddenly opened. In still others the lower lip is brought 
in contact with the teeth, and the air is forced between the lips 
and the teeth. This is true in sounding the letter "f." In 
teaching the proper use of these organ charts, drawings, and 
demonstrations may be employed by the teacher of phonics. 

The Jaws. It is the function of these speech parts to carry 
the lips and teeth into proper positions for making the different 
sounds. The movement of the lower jaw increases or decreases 
the size of the mouth cavity which changes the resonance prop- 
erty of this organ. The raising or lowering of the jaw also helps 
to bring the tongue and lips into their proper positions. 

The Resonance Cavities. The chief function of the nasal 
passages is to serve as resonance cavities. It is impossible to 
change their form in a voluntary way except in a slight degree. 
However, if the shape of these passages happens to be modified 
by an operation for adenoids, or if the nasal passages are affected 
by catarrh, the voice may be changed slightly. The relation of 
the nasal passages to any sound is determined in a large part 
by the position of the glottis. This organ is at the back of the 
mouth. In some positions it may almost close the nasal pas- 
sages, while in others it may leave them entirely open. 

Certain hollow places in the bones of the skull are also sup- 
posed to function as resonance cavities. There are many differ- 
ences of opinion as to the extent of the effect of these cavities 
upon the voice. Attention has already been called to the fact 
that other organs, such as the larynx, the pharynx, and the 
mouth, have a resonance function. It is for this reason, in 
part, that the professional vocalist has his voice carefully at- 



THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 145 

tended to by an expert physician. The removal of any part 
by an operation or the disease of any part might bring about 
a great change in the quality of his voice. 

Speech Defects. Anything which seriously affects the move- 
ments of the various vocal parts mil result in speech defects. 
Tongue-tie is due to the fact that the tip of the tongue cannot 
be moved as it should be. The absence of teeth during the 
second dentition period, hair lip, cleft palate and lack of proper 
breathing coordinations are all examples of defects of speech 
which grow out of a lack of free and unhampered functioning 
of the speaking parts. 

Coordinations of the Speech Organs. It is now of interest to 
note the total number of coordinations which must be brought 
about in order to produce such a sound as "ah." These are 
as follows: 

1. The jaws are open so that the teeth are from one half to 
one inch apart. 

2. The tongue is flat upon the floor of the mouth. Its tip 
and edges should touch the inner portions of the teeth. 

3. The lips should be at rest upon the teeth. 

4. The soft palate must be raised so as to obstruct the nasal 
passages. 

5. The larnyx is drawn down slightly. 

This brief description should emphasize the complexity of the 
speaking act. Here are five separate coordinations, all of which 
must be accomplished almost at the same moment. In most 
instances, to do five things at once is considered a difficult feat; 
but in this case such an act is passed over by the teacher with 
little. thought, and if the pupil fails to produce the sound prop- 
erly, she has little patience with his difficulty. 

It is impossible to give a full discussion of all the sounds at 
this time ; so it may be well to conclude with a table (see page 
147) by Aikin (3), which shows in some detail the coordinations 
for different consonant sounds. 

The chapter may now be closed by a further discussion of 



146 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



phonics. Phonics is essentially an analytic process. It means 
the breaking up of oral speech into its various sounds. Oral 




Fig. 4 
Showing the Throat and Adjoining Structures, by Miller (26) 
I, Larynx. 2, Epiglottis. 3, Lower Pharynx. 4, Lips- 5. Teeth. 6, Tongue. 
7, Mouth (Oral Cavity). 8, Uvula and Soft Palate. 9, Hard Palate. 10, Upper 
Pharynx. 11, Nasal Cavities. 12, Nose. 

A, Arytenoid cartilage; C, Cricoid cartilage; T, Thyroid cartilage; W, Wind- 
pipe; X, Adam's apple. 

speech is for the child a highly synthesized process. Oral words 
are units or wholes, and in no sense are they broken up into their 



THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 



147 



various parts. Some authors hold that the nervous mechanism 
by which speech is accompHshed is such that only a single stimu- 
lus is necessary to excite the muscular reactions involved in an 
entire oral word. If this view be correct, the analysis required 

Table XIV 
Showing Various Elements in Consonant Sounds, by Aikin 





Incomplete Closures 


Comp. Closures 


Where formed 


ASPIR- 
ATES 


CONTINUANTS 

(sounding) 


EXPLOSIVES 




Buccal 






Un- 








non- 


Nasal 


Tremor 


voiced 


Voiced 






nasal 






(hard) 


(soft) 


I Larynx 


H 












2 Tongue (body) 
















and Hard 














Jaw 


Palate (back) 






NG 




K 


G 


open 


3 Tongue (tip) 
















and Hard 
















Palate (front) 




L 


N 


R 


T 


D 


4 Lips 






M 




P 


B 




5 Lower Lip and 














Jaw 


Upper Teeth 


F 


V 










, partly 


6 Tip of Tongue 














' open 


and Upper 
















Teeth 


TH 


TH 












7 Teeth 


S 


Z 










8 Teeth (with lips) 


SH 


J 








1 Jaw 




CH = 


(soft) 










TSH 


G = 
J DJ 








closed 



by phonics is an entirely new problem for the child and should 
not be thought of as a part of an old problem. It is new from 
the nervous standpoint in that it probably involves a different 
nervous mechanism from that employed when the sound is 
dealt with as one of a series of sounds. It is also new in that 
the child has to become more or less conscious of the speaking 
parts and of the relations which they bear one to another. 
Again, this problem of phonics is new in that an association is 
built up between the sound and the written or printed symbol. 



148 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

The work of phonics is also synthetic. After the child has 
made the proper analysis and is able to make the sound which 
should accompany each letter in a word, there is still the prob- 
lem of synthesizing these sounds so that they become a word. 
In this connection one of three situations may confront the child. 
First, he may be dealing with a word which is in both his visual 
and his oral vocabularies. In such cases the synthesis is usually 
easy, because he has in mind the end to be obtained. Second, 
the child may be dealing with a word which is in his oral vocabu- 
lary but not in his visual vocabulary. Here the child does not 
know which of the many known words in his oral vocabulary is 
sought by the synthetic process, but he may be able by the trial 
and success method to build up a word which is recognized as 
belonging in his oral vocabulary. The difificulty lies in the fact 
that the particular end sought is not known. The situation is 
such that, if this end were known, the problem would be solved. 
Third, the child may be confronted with a word which is in 
neither his oral nor his visual vocabularies. In this case, the 
word is wholly new to him, and the attack must be made by 
the trial and success method, the only available guide for de- 
termining the final result being the child's general knowledge 
of language. Help may be gained from the context, but in 
many instances the child is called upon to deal with isolated 
words. 

The factors entering into those abilities which make for 
analysis and synthesis are not well understood. They probably 
depend upon native ability, maturity, and training. The 
greatest error which has been made in the development of these 
abilities is the assumption that training in the primary grades 
is sufficient for all pupils. The majority of children may re- 
ceive ample practice during this period, but evidently there are 
large individual differences in these abilities, as in many others, 
and in order to meet such a situation training should be con- 
tinued into the third year for some and into the fourth year for 
others. It may be argued that this is not done in other subjects 



THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 149 

and cannot be done in reading. The answer to this is that the 
problem here is a fundamental one in a fundamental subject of 
the curriculum, and if facility in these processes is not gained 
early, the child is hampered not only in his reading but in all 
other work as well. Another problem which prevails in this 
type of training is the transfer of ability in phonics to the reading 
work proper. The child may do well in phonics but may not 
be able to apply his training in the reading which he is called 
upon to do. 

The discussion so far has emphasized analysis and synthesis 
as they relate to the building up of a new and larger vocabulary. 
It is also true that the same methods may be used in correcting 
mispronunciations. For instance, a chUd may insist on sa3dng 
"val" for "valve." If the child is made to analyze such a word 
into its various sounds, and then to synthesize these sounds 
into the proper word, a better appreciation of the correct word 
is given than if the correct pronunciation alone is given. 

The processes of analysis and synthesis treated thus far have 
been oral in their nature and application. At a later stage the 
oral elements which enter into these processes can be very much 
reduced, and they then become almost entirely mental. The 
child who uses the dictionary readily and accurately for pro- 
nunciation has reached this second plane. He is able to look 
at the diacritical marks and to proceed immediately to the cor- 
rect pronunciation without the intermediate steps used by the 
child in phonics. To reduce the oral elements in phonics is 
evidently one of the important purposes of such training. 

Another phase of this problem is found in the general attitude 
taken by different pupils toward words. To deal with words 
successfully, both an analytic and a synthetic knowledge of 
them is necessary. As reading is usually taught, synthesis is 
developed first and is followed by analysis. In some cases this 
procedure apparently fixes the synthetic method so firmly that 
it becomes, for the pupils so taught, a method of approach to 
all language. A few children of this class have great difficulty 



150 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

in acquiring the analytic method of approach, and some ap- 
parently are never able to do so. Many times those who do 
not avail themselves of the analytic method are careless and 
inaccurate in their methods of dealing with words. It will be 
seen that training in phonics tends toward the analytic method 
of dealing with words, and from this standpoint is highly im- 
portant, because it is at the basis of an accurate knowledge of 
words. The danger in such training lies in the fact that the 
pupil may become so thoroughly dependent upon the objective 
process in his approach to words, that he loses his subjective 
approach. Such a pupil is restricted in too great a degree by 
the details of the word, and too little is allowed for interpreta- 
tion. Under these conditions reading will necessarily be slow 
and tedious. 

The process of analysis which has been emphasized so far 
involves only the analysis of words. There is, however, another 
type of analysis which is highly important. This has to do with 
language relations. The particular point to be stressed at this 
time is that there must be the ability to analyze these relations. 
The teacher of a foreign language speaks of this work as con- 
struction work. It is not believed that the child can proceed 
upon any such technical basis in learning to read, but he can 
use analysis in phrasing, inflection, pitch of voice, and other 
elements of this type. Such an analysis is fundamental to all 
comprehension, and should be taught and emphasized as the 
language used in the reading becomes more and more complex. 



CHAPTER VIII 
RATE OF VOCALIZATION 

An important phase of vocatization is the rate at which it 
proceeds. Such a rate has in it at least two elements: the 
muscular reactions, and, on the mental side, the process of in- 
terpretation. Both of these factors enter into reading rates. 
An oral reader who proceeds smoothly and easily in his reading 
is able to do so because the muscles of his vocal apparatus 
respond quickly and readily to the stimuli and because he is 
able to arrive at the meaning in an accurate and easy manner. 

The separation of these two elements is a rather difficult 
matter. The problem has been attacked by the writer (14) in 
the following manner: first, the subject was allowed to pro- 
nounce thirty easy and familiar words three times. The words 
were arranged in a different order each time. Second, the 
subject was asked to count repeatedly from one to ten for thirty 
seconds. The first test has in it both the muscular reaction 
time and interpretation, while the second test has the element 
of interpretation reduced to a minimum. 

The results show clearly that the counting rate is more rapid 
than the pronouncing rate. Some of the most rapid counters 
did not prove to be the most rapid readers, and those who 
counted slowly were not always the slowest readers. These 
results indicate that the rate of reading is a complex affair 
and depends upon more than the mere rate of vocahzation. 
On the other hand, in most cases, those who pronounced the 
list of words rapidly read rapidly, and those who pronounced 
the words most slowly were slow readers. 

Table XV presents facts regarding the rate of counting for 
the several school grades. This table shows the percentage of 

151 



152 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

children or adults in the various grades who have a rate of 
counting of five or more words per second. The absence of 
any uniformity in these results indicates that differences in 
rates of counting are individual matters and not subject to 

Table XV 
Showing Counting Rate A ccording to School Grade 

Grade . Percentage 

3 33 

4 75 

5 37 

6 71 

7 66 

H. S 90 

C 75 

change through training. In counting there is a tendency to 
slur ovef words. This fact may contribute to certain of the 
differences in the table. The increase in rate of counting is 
not great enough to indicate that there is any large increase 
in the rate of articulation in the upper grades. It seems evi- 
dent, therefore, that increasing familiarity with words is an 
important factor in producing the results in the pronunciation 
test. This increase from grade to grade is shown in Table XVI. 
The percentage column includes those who have a rate of pro- 
nouncing which is two or more words per second. Such data 
present a strong argument for familiarity with language forms. 

Table XVI 

Showing Pronouncing Rate According to School Grade 

Grade Percentage 

3 II 

4 •• 25 

5 50 

6 71 

7 ■ • • 44 

H. S 70 

C 100 



RATE OF VOCALIZATION 153 

If such familiarity reaches the stage where it is both rapid and 
accurate, one of the most important elements in the rate of 
reading is taken care of. 

An important phase of this problem has to do with the de- 
termination of the time in the school experiences of the child 
when the rate of pronunciation first equals the counting rate. 
Judd (22) has presented data obtained by a method similar 
to the one just described to show that this period is near the 
fourth grade. These results indicate the time at which recog- ' 
nition overtakes vocalization. This is the point in the child's 
experience at which he needs a new method of interpretation, 
because the method used in oral reading is too slow. The 
more rapid method of interpretation is supplied by silent read- 
ing. The question is often asked by teachers as to when formal 
instruction in silent reading should begin. Judd's results 
answer this question satisfactorily. Precocious children and 
slow children might be given the counting and pronouncing 
tests in order to determine the time at which silent reading 
should begin in their particular cases. Such procedure seems 
advisable, because Judd's results are averages and will not 
apply to all cases. 

The problem involved in the rate of vocalization has also 
been attacked by Cattell (5) from a little different standpoint. 
This investigator was interested in determining the lapse of time 
which must ensue after a word comes into the visual field before 
pronunciation begins. This is usually spoken of as the visual- 
vocal reaction time. In order to get accurate results for such 
periods of time, it is necessary to use complicated apparatus 
which allows the measurements to be made in thousandths of a 
second. The results obtained by Cattell showed rather marked 
individual differences; but since he did not correlate his results 
with reading rates, the interest which attaches to them at this 
time is general. 

Some of his results are shown in Table XVII. The numbers 
in this table indicate time in thousandths seconds. That is, 



154 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



it took subject B 397 thousandths seconds to start the pro- 
nunciation of the word "bond" after it came into his visual 
field. Likewise it took Subject C 405 thousandths seconds to 
start the pronunciation of the same word. Another list of words 
used by Cattell includes words that are much longer than those 
as shown in Table XVII. These results show that it took Sub- 
ject B fifty-two thousandths seconds longer on the average to 

Table XVII 

Showing Reaction Time for Various Words, by Cattell 



Word 


Subject B 


Subject C 


Bond 


397 


40s 


Style 


435 


442 


Fact 


355 


38s 


Light 


394 


414 


House 


367 


388 



recognize the long words than it did for him to recognize the 
short words. Likewise, it took Subject C forty-six thousandths 
seconds longer for the long words. 

Cattell divides the time required for the recognition of a 
word under these conditions into four different periods, as 
follows: (i) the latent period in the sense organ, (2) the trans- 
mission in the afferent nerve, (3) the transmission in the spinal 
cord and efferent nerve, and (4) the latent period in the muscle. 
A reaction time of 150 thousandths seconds he divides as fol- 
lows: (i) 50 thousandths seconds for the transmission to and 
from the retina; (2) 5 to 10 thousandths seconds the latent 
period in the muscle; (3) 15 to 20 thousandths seconds latent 
period in the retina for the transmission of light reflected from 
the white surface; and (4) 75 thousandths seconds for the cerebral 
operations. It seems probable that there is involved in such 
reaction times a fundamental factor in reading rate. It is 
highly desirable that these experiments be repeated and the 
results correlated with rate of reading. 



RATE OF VOCALIZATION 155 

By way oi summary, there are individual differences in the 
rate at which individual pupils vocalize. Two factors are con- 
cerned in the process. One of these is the famiharity with 
language forms, and another is the rate at which the nervous 
and muscular systems function. The first seems amenable to 
training, while the second is probably a fundamental character- 
istic which can be changed but Httle. The time in the school 
experiences of the child when the rate of vocalization and the 
rate of counting becomes equal is important as indicating the 
period at which silent reading should be introduced into the 
training of the child. 



CHAPTER IX 
VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 

It is common knowledge that many pupils make use of vocal 
movements during silent reading. In the case of beginners 
these movements are very apparent — so much so, in fact, that 
their reading in many cases is a kind of silent oral-reading. In 
such reading most of the vocal movements of oral reading are 
present, and accompan3dng these motor processes there may be 
certain speech sounds. These sounds are usually in the nature 
of whispers rather than sounds produced by the vocal cords. 
The t5;pe of reading just described is due largely to the fact that 
the first reading of the child is oral. As a result, the methods 
of this type of reading are carried over into the early silent read- 
ing. Though these conditions usually prevail among beginning 
readers only, yet occasionally more experienced children read in 
a manner similar to that of the primary child. Such children 
present a problem to the teacher. If these movements are a 
fundamental phase of their reading process, then it seems neces- 
sary to allow them to continue their vocal movements during 
silent reading; but if such movements are merely a habit carried 
over from their earlier experiences in reading, then it seems es- 
sential that this motor element be reduced to a minimum. 
This problem derives its importance from the fact that silent 
reading which carries with it vocal movements in any large 
degree is relatively slow. 

The study of the problem will be approached from two 
different standpoints. These are as follows: (i) The presence 
of vocal movements in silent reading, and (2) the purpose or 
function of such movements. 

The Presence of Vocalization in Silent Reading. There are 
many degrees in which these movements may be present. In 

166 



VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 157 

some instances they are hardly perceptible to an observer. In 
cases of this kind all sounds have disappeared and the move- 
ments are very much slurred and abbreviated. Only one or 
two slight movements are made for each word. In reading of 
this type only certain of the speech organs are used. There are 
pupils who seem to move only the Hps during silent reading, 
while others seem to employ movements only at the base of the 
tongue, and still others in whom the movements are apparent 
only in the larynx. In other readers there are no movements 
apparent to the observer. In some cases a very slight move- 
ment may correspond to a phrase or a whole sentence. Some 
persons are very conscious of these slight movements, while 
others maintain that they are entirely free from all traces of 
such movements. Whether any person reaches the place where 
all traces of movements disappear in his silent reading is a very 
much mooted question. 

Vocal movements are very complex and, as a result, are very 
difficult to study in any experimental way. Since such move- 
ments may be in the larynx, or in the tip or the base of the 
tongue, or in the palate, or in other portions of the vocal organs, 
it is almost impossible to employ any form of apparatus which 
will record such movements in any adequate way. To add to 
these difficulties, certain readers maintain that they do not 
have a real movement of the parts, but only a tendency toward 
movement. If such be true, the difficulties of devising ap- 
paratus to detect such tendencies are very apparent. 

In spite of these difficulties some authorities have attacked 
the problem by employing certain types of apparatus. Curtis 
(8) procured objective records of the movements of the larynx 
by placing a sensitive tambour over this organ. The move- 
ments were then recorded upon a moving drum which carried 
smoked paper. In fifteen out of twenty cases he found move- 
ment, while in the remaining five cases the results were negative. 
This means doubtless that the apparatus was not sufficiently 
refined to produce results in all cases. But even if there were 



158 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

no movements present in the larynx, it must be remembered 
that it is entirely possible that there were movements in other 
parts of the vocal apparatus. Courten (7) experimented with 
the movements of the tongue by means of a Rousslet exploratory 
bulb. The movements of the tongue compressed a bulb which 
was connected to a tambour by means of a rubber tube. The 
pointer of the tambour recorded the movements upon a moving 
drum. This author reports that movements were present in 
every case. 

Hansen and Lehman (15) found that if a person thought in- 
tently of a word there was an audible whisper which could be 
heard if conditions were made favorable by means of sound 
reflectors. Reed (3) used apparatus to register tongue move- 
ments. He proceeded upon the theory that if any speech 
movements were present tongue movements would form a part 
of them. The apparatus was so arranged that breathing move- 
ments were recorded along with the vocal movements. Methods 
were found by means of which the breathing movements and 
the speech movements could be separated. His conclusion is 
that the presence of vocal movements in reading constitutes 
an individual, rather than a universal, trait. He also calls 
attention to the fact that usually introspections concerning the 
presence or absence of the motor elements of reading are con- 
firmed by the objective data. 

Other authors have attacked the problem by means of obser- 
vation. In this way Quantz (29) found movements of the 
speaking parts to be universal in the early reading of children. 
He found also that such movements decreased with practice 
and usually disappeared in the rapid and more intelligent 
readers. It is his idea that lip movement in silent reading is not 
acquired, but that it is a reflex action the physical tendency to 
which is inherited. This would mean, then, that reading 
mthout lip movement has to be learned. The writer (14) has 
also attacked the problem from the standpoint of observation 
as seen in Table XVIII. The left-hand column indicates the va- 



VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 159 



rious school grades. In the second column various readers are in- 
dicated by different numbers, and in the third column different 

Table XVHI 

Showing A?noimt of Vocalization in Silent Reading through Successive School 

Grades 







.'Vmount 








Amount 




Oracle 


Subject 


of Vocal- 
ization 


Range in 
SUent Rate 


Grade 


Subject 


of Vocal- 
ization 


Range in 
Silent Rate 




I 


** 


3-1- -3 




33 


* 


4.1-2.5 




2 





4-5-2.5 




34 





3 


4-1.3 




3 


^* 


3.6-2.1 




35 





3 


0-1.9 


3 


4 


** 


4.1-2.2 




36 


* 


3 


4-1.9 




5 


** 


I. 9-1. 5 


7 


37 


* 


4 


I-I. 6 




6 





3-3-I-9 




38 


** 


5 


9-2 .0 




7 


* 


5-8-2.5 




39 





5 


9-2.8 




8 


** 


1 . 9-0 . 8 




40 


* 


4 


6-2.4 




9 


*** 


2.5-1.9 




41 


* 


3 


5-2.1 




lO 


** 


3 - i-i • 7 




42 





4 


9-2.5 




II 


** 


2 . 7-1 . 6 




43 





6 


5-3-5 




12 


* 


3.0-1.6 




44 


* 


4 


7-2.0 


4 


13 


* 


2.4-1.3 




45 


* 


3 


9-2.6 




14 


** 


3-4-1-5 


H. S. 


46 


* 


4 


6-1.9 




15 


* 


2.2-1 .0 




47 





6 


5-3-3 




i6 


** 


2.9-0.9 




48 





4 


I-I. 8 




17 


** 


2 . o-i . 2 




49 
50 






3 

5 


I-I. 4 
1-2. 1 




i8 


* 


3 • i-i - 7 




51 





4 


6-2.1 




19 


* 


2.9-1 .2 














20 





3. I-I. 2 




52 


* 


8 


2-3-8 


5 


21 


* 


3-5-1-5 




53 





8 


2-3.1 




22 





2.3^.8 




54 





8 


2-3-4 




23 


* 


3.8-1.4 


C. 


55 





4 


1-2.4 




24 


* 


4. 1-2. I 




56 


* 


6 


8-3-3 




25 





3.0-1.2 




57 
58 



* 


10 
6 


0-3.6 
8-3-1 




26 





2 . 9-0 . 8 




59 





6 


0-2.8 




27 


* 


5-3-1-8 












28 


** 


3-7-1-3 










6 


29 

30 
31 
32 


** 
* 

* 




4. 1-2. I 
6.0-4.3 
5-6-2.5 
4.6-1 .6 











amounts of vocalization noted during the silent reading of the 
subject is indicated. A zero in this column means that there 



160 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

was no movement perceptible; one asterisk indicates a slight 
amount of movement present; two asterisks mean much move- 
ment; and three asterisks mean very much movement present. 
The fourth column in the table indicates the range in the rate 
of silent reading for selections of varying difficulty. From this 
table it is clear that vocalization was observed in a large per- 
centage of the cases. The fact that it was not observed does 
not mean that it was absent in the other cases. 

In addition to the methods already noted Strieker (35) used 
the method of introspection. He questioned one hundred 
persons with respect to their motor experiences when they 
thought of certain letters. He discovered only one person who 
did not report a motor accompaniment of such mental activity. 
Huey (17) also used the method of introspection and found 
among thirty students that the large majority reported inner 
speech in some form to be a part of their ordinary reading. 
The term " inner speech " which is used by Huey in this con- 
nection is a broader term than vocalization. Therefore it should 
not be inferred that vocalization was present in each of the 
thirty cases reported by Huey. 

This brief survey of the literature shows the results to be 
somewhat conflicting. However, it seems safe to conclude that 
vocalization in some degree occurs in the reading of most per- 
sons. The fact that this motor activity is present is not usually 
accepted as proving that it has an important function to perform 
in the reading act. This phase of the problem remains to be 
discussed. 

The Function of Vocalization Movements in Silent Reading. 
The problem suggested here is concerned with the relation 
which this motor activity bears to interpretation. If it is a 
fundamental and necessary phase of the method by which mean- 
ing is obtained, then its presence is legitimate; but if there are 
methods of arriving at meaning which do not involve vocaliza- 
tion and which are more efficient, then this motor method of 
interpretation should be eliminated if possible. Study of this 



VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 161 

problem has been attempted by some investigators by means 
of experimentation. 

One method of attacking it consists in ha\dng the subjects 
employ their vocal muscles in some other way while the reading 
process is going on. If it is foimd that reading can proceed in 
experiments of this type, then certainly vocal movements are 
not necessary- in the reading process. The difficulty Hes in 
emplo}dng the vocal apparatus so that no movements which 
belong to the reading process t\t11 appear along with the other 
movements. In performing an experiment of this type, Secor 
(^T,) had his subjects whistle while they were reading. The 
method was later changed because it was thought that this pro- 
cedure allowed certain of the movements in reading to take place. 
He employed a second plan in which he required his subjects to 
repeat a letter over and over during the reading. Secor thought 
that the second method eliminated all possibility of reading 
movements in the vocal organs, but other writers pointed out 
the possibilities of movements under these conditions. As a 
result his findings are not considered as final. Secor's con- 
clusion is that it is possible for the reading process to proceed 
under the conditions of his experiments ^^ith Httle or no inter- 
ference from the imposed movements of the \-ocal apparatus. 

T*intner (28) varied Secor's method by ha\Tng his subjects 

count while they read. He tested the rate of reading before his 
subjects began the experimental work and followed this by 
training in counting so that the process became automatic. 
After training in reading while counting, the rate of reading 
was found to have increased in a marked degree. This increase, 
according to Pintner, was due to the fact that the reading process 
was not encumbered by the movements of vocaKzation which 
usually accompany it. The experiment would have been much 
better if a control group had been used. Such a group should 
have had the same training in reading as the experimental group 
\nthout the counting. It is understood now that for certain pupils 
only a little training is necessary in order to increase their rate 



162 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

of reading, and it may be that the control group would have 
shown a marked increase in their rate. 

Reed (30) varied his method in the latter part of his investiga- 
tion to determine the function of inner speech. He thinks that 
it plays no important part in reading. 

The general conclusion to be reached from these experiments 
is that vocalization does not have a vital and necessary part in 
the reading process. However, it can hardly be claimed that 
the control in these investigations is absolute, and for this 
reason the results should not be taken as final. 

Other types of evidence on the same problem may now be 
given. Quantz (29) and Abell (i) have both emphasized the 
retarding influence of vocal movements upon the rate of read- 
ing. Each of these investigators found in his work that the 
slow reader was nearly always the one who used lip movements. 
Huey (17) has stated that vocalization is a thing which should 
be eliminated from reading, and Dearborn (9) is of the opinion 
that the attention could grasp more if it were not held back by 
the movements of vocalization. 

One of the most interesting bits of evidence upon this problem 
has been contributed by Collins (6). In his study of abnormal 
cases in which the ability to read had been lost he found some 
patients who had no inner speech and yet they had the ability 
to read. It is very difficult to show conclusively that such 
persons have lost inner speech entirely; but if Collins' methods 
are accepted, his results indicate that inner speech is not es- 
sential to the reading process. 

Reference may be made again in this connection to Table 
XVIII. From these data it is apparent that the greatest amount 
of vocalization is present in the third and fourth grades. This 
corresponds to the observations of Quantz, and must indicate 
the very great influence which oral language and oral reading 
have upon the early silent reading of children. In a large 
majority of the cases recorded in the table a high degree of vocal- 
ization is correlated with slow reading. This evidently means 



VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 163 

that such readers have a kind of one to one correspondence be- 
tween the vocaHzation movements and the various sounds 
which make up the different words. Under such conditions 
interpretation proceeds slowly. The reverse of the above state- 
ment is not true, i.e., those who have a slight degree of move- 
ment present are not always rapid readers. Evidently, there 
are factors which determine the rate of reading other than the 
amount of vocalization. 

Some rapid readers are to be noted who have a slight degree 
of movement. This indicates that such readers slur and abridge 
these movements very much. In these cases, the process of 
reading is not retarded and held back by the movements, but 
the movements are so modified that they keep pace with the 
process of interpretation. 

Other points noted in connection with this same group of 
readers, but not shown in the table, were that a difficult passage 
might provoke vocalization movements, and that certain readers 
used such movements at the beginning of any new passage. In 
the first instance it is doubtless true that vocalization helps 
these pupils in their interpretation, and it is thus made use of 
when interpretation is difficult. The second instance may be 
due to much the same sort of thing, except that the pupil em- 
ploys the vocal movements only as an aid in getting started in 
a selection. After interpretation is once begun and the selection 
"felt out," such movements are no longer necessary. 

Certain views of the problem based upon introspection are 
also of interest. As has been suggested, Strieker (35) supported 
the theory that vocalization is a fundamental phase of reading. 
It was his idea that reading could not proceed without some of 
the vocal movements found in speech. He based his argument 
upon the fact that mental activity is distinctly motor in its 
nature. To him, all thought was conditioned by vocal move- 
ments. This view was opposed by Stumpf (36). He pointed 
out that, if the view of Strieker was correct, then all differences 
in tones which it is possible to distinguish would depend upon 



164 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

differences in vocal movements. His contention was that many 
distinctions of this nature which it is possible to make are 
entirely too fine to be the result of differences in movements. 
Paulham (27) also disagreed with Strieker. He thought that 
the fact that Strieker was looking for the motor elements in his 
mental activity brought them into being, and that this accounted 
for their presence. These differences of opinion may be due 
to individual differences in the mental activity of these men. 
It is possible that for Strieker vocal movements were neces- 
sary, while Stumpf used other methods of interpretation. 

One other theory of the question should be presented. This 
view calls attention to the fact that language and mental 
activity have been developed together and that each has been 
acquired in a large measure as a motor process. This means 
that the child approaches his first reading with certain char- 
acteristics which tend to give prominence to motor acti\dties. 
In addition to this, most of his experiences up to the time of his 
introduction to reading have been predominantly motor. It is 
also true that before children speak they express themselves by 
various kinds of movements. Again, the early experiences of 
the child with language always involve movements of the vocal 
apparatus. In addition to these vocal movements there may 
be gestures and other types of movements accompanying the 
oral language. During this period his responses to most of the 
stimuli which reach his nervous system are essentially motor. 
He has not reached the place in his development where re- 
flection and other higher types of mental activity replace the 
earlier types of responses. One reason for the presence of vocal 
movements in the reading of many pupils is now apparent. 
Such a form of behavior corresponds with their usual methods 
of response in their early development. It is only a phase of a 
type of response which they made earlier to all stimuli. With 
such conditions prevailing when the child is first introduced to 
reading, this method of response may easily be retained in his 
later reading experiences. 



VOCALIZATION DURING SILENT READING 165 

In conclusion, it must be admitted that the real value of the 
motor accompaniments of the reading process is in doubt. It 
seems clear, however, that such movements in any large degree 
have no place in the reading activity, except in the case of a very 
few pupils. Reading which involves a large amount of motor 
activity may safely be characterized as an easygoing t}T3e of 
acti\"ity which has been developed by the reader because he has 
followed the line of least resistance. Pupils who read in such 
a manner could by practice and effort reduce to a minimum 
the vocal accompaniments of their reading, and in this way 
increase their efficiency. It is clear, then, from this entire dis- 
cussion that the school is confronted ^\"ith a definite problem. 
Every child begins his reading by employing his vocal apparatus 
in a degree which is not necessary in well-developed reading 
habits. It is the problem of the teacher to enable her pupils, 
by training, to proceed in their reading without these vocal 
acti\ities. 



CHAPTER X 
BREATHING IN RELATION TO ORAL READING 

It is well understood that oral reading is made up of a number 
of sounds which are produced by a flow of the breath. In this 
flow of the breath accurately established control is necessary 
in order that pauses and other phases of expression emphasis 
may be made. Such control has been emphasized in a large 
degree by public speaking teachers and vocalists as a phase of 
their methods of training, but very few elementary school 
teachers place any stress upon this element in the reading 
process. This is probably due to the fact that oral reading has 
been taught in a large degree as a kind of check upon com- 
prehension. None of the finer points in oral reading have been 
of interest, because the prime purpose of the teacher has been 
to give the child a technique by means of which he can arrive 
at meaning, and since this is the case many elements of oral 
reading need not be emphasized. 

It may be well to call attention at this place to the growing 
demand for a greater emphasis upon silent reading. This 
means, without doubt, that the amount of oral reading in our 
schools is to be very much reduced. In fact, schools may be 
found now where oral reading has been almost entirely aban- 
doned and silent reading substituted. If oral reading is to re- 
main in the curriculum and is to receive adequate attention it 
must be put upon a different basis from that upon which it now 
is. Evidently one opportunity for oral reading lies in the field 
of expression. The need for training in expression in the case 
of most children is only too apparent. They are inaccurate and 
careless in what they say and in the manner of expression. In 
many cases their voices are pitched high and have a distinct 

166 



BREATHING AND ORAL READING 167 

nasal quality. If this phase of language is to be modified, the 
modification must come through the public schools, and oral 
reading seems the proper avenue. It is the purpose, then, of 
this chapter to discuss breathing in its relation to those phases 
of oral reading which are concerned with expression. 

For those who have never done so, it is very interesting to 
watch the breathing movements of children as they read. One 
may read with a series of short gasps; another may begin by 
filling the lungs full of air in such a manner as to raise the 
shoulder; while yet another may continue to read until his 
breath seems entirely exhausted. By such observation it is 
often possible to discover those children for whom the control 
of the breath presents a problem. 

However, if progress is to be made in the study of such a 
problem, other methods of securing data must be used. A 
plan employed by the writer (14) will be described briefly. In 
addition to the tambour and moving drum mentioned in con- 
nection with the researches upon vocalization, experiments upon 
breathing necessitate the use of a pneumograph. Such an 
instrument may be placed upon any part of the thoracic cavity. 
A non-elastic cord goes around the body and is attached to the 
rubber membrane of a modified tambour, which is the essential 
part of the pnemnograph. The movements of inspiration and 
expiration tend to change the density of the air in this tambour. 
This change of density results in a movement of the rubber 
membrane of a second tambour, which is attached to the first 
by means of a rubber tube. Attached to this second tambour 
is a lever which rises and falls with the movements of the rubber 
membrane upon it. The movements of this lever are recorded 
on a moving drum which carries smoked paper. A time line is 
made by another pointer which is moved up and down every 
fifth of a second. Such a tune line is useful in determining the 
time length of the various movements. 

In conducting experiments of this type it is customary to 
allow the child to read for a period of time before any record is 



168 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



taken. After the child is thoroughly at ease he may be allowed 
to sit quietly for a short time so that a record may be taken of 
the normal breathing. Without discontinuing the record, the 
child may be told to read so that the change from the normal 
breathing to the breathing as found in reading may be noted. 




1^ 



• Time Lin^ 



Ti-^ 




Abdominal oma* 
Timeline 




Abdominal cuWfc 



Fig. 5 
Showing Different Forms of Breathing Ctirves 

This change is to be seen in the curves shown in Figure 5. In 
the curve marked X, that portion from ^ to F represents 
normal breathing. At F the child was told to read and from 
that point the form of the curve is entirely changed. In that 
part of the curve which represents the normal breathing, the 
distance from 5 to C and from D to E represents the expiration 
movement, while the distance from A to B and from C to D 
represents the inspiration movement. This part of the curve 



BREATHING AND ORAL READING 169 

is slightly flattened a.t A, B, C, etc. Such a fact indicates that 
there is a short time between expiration and inspiration when 
no movement is made. If a perpendicular line is dropped from 
A, B, C, etc., to the time line it is possible to determine the 
length of the different stages of the breathing movements. 
In this way it will be seen that the inspiration movement from 
A to B requires about six-fifths seconds while the expiration 
movements shown from B to C requires about nine-fifths 
seconds. 

If a tangent is drawn to the curve at A, and a perpendicular 
is drawn to this tangent at the point of tangency so as to inter- 
sect a second tangent at B drawn parallel to the first, it is pos- 
sible to determine the height of the breathing curve. The 
height of such curves is an index of the depth of breathing. 
The depth may be greater or less than that shown. 

In that part of the curve following F where the command to 
read was given it will be seen that the shape of the curve is very 
different from that of the earlier part. The inspiration periods 
H to I and K to L have been shortened, and the expiration 
periods from F to H and I to K have been much lengthened. 
The depth has been slightly decreased and the expiration move- 
ment has changed into the inspiration period immediately as 
shown at F and I. In other words, the breath was not held 
as was indicated at A and C ir. the same figure. This form of 
curve indicates that the reader takes in a quick breath and then 
conserves it or allows it to pass through the vocal cords slowly. 

The study of a number of children and adults by the writer 
has shown two typical forms of breathing among readers. In 
Figure 5, curves marked Y and Z show these different forms of 
breathing. In each of these figures there are two curves. The 
upper one is made by the movements of the abdomen. In Y 
it should be noted that the two curves are similar. In fact so 
much are they alike that they could be interchanged. This 
type of movement indicates an inward and outward movement 
of the walls of the thorax in both parts. It is also true that the 



170 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

amount of movement in the lower part of the thorax is no greater 
than that in the upper part. The record shown is that of an 
excellent oral reader in the sixth grade and doubtless the per- 
fect control seen in this curve is of assistance to him in his 
reading. 

In Z there is found a type of breathing which is regular in 
its nature, but a very great difference exists between the curve 
made by the movements of the upper thorax and that made 
by the abdominal region. The abdominal curve is similar to 
those considered in Y; but in the breast curve the record at 
A proceeds along a nearly horizontal line, which would indicate 
little movement of the upper thoracic walls. At B there is a 
sudden rise in the curve, which indicates a sudden collapse of 
the thoracic region. Almost immediately the lungs are filled, 
as indicated by the downward movement of the curve at C. 
Such breathing is evidently controlled by the diaphragm. As 
the diaphragm moves upward and forces the air out, the walls 
of the upper thoracic region remain stationary. When the 
diaphragm has moved upward as far as possible, it then starts 
downward; and instead of the walls remaining stationary 
during this part of the movement, they first collapse and are 
then forced outward by the air coming into the lungs. Un- 
fortunately there are no breathing records of trained speakers 
or readers at hand, but it seems. possible that this type of breath- 
ing corresponds closely to the abdominal breathing stressed by 
many teachers of public speaking and vocal music. This curve 
is the record of a seventh-grade boy who was a poor oral reader. 
The general form of the curve might lead to the conclusion that 
the reading was done by an expert, and we are forced to believe 
that the difficulty of such a reader is more fundamental than the 
breathing coordinations. 

Results studied so far should be considered as typical. It 
is not to be understood that all curves conform to these types. 
In fact, there are very great variations in the regularity, form, 
depth, and every other phase of the curves. There seems to 



BREATHING AND ORAL READING 171 

be a slight tendency for girls to show greater regularity in the 
form of curves than for boys. The greatest irregularities 
found are among women. Some of the best records from the 
standpoint of regularity, depth, etc., have been found among 
the men. 

A very important factor in regard to breathing is the length 
of the expiration period. It is during this part of the breathing 
act that the reading is done. If the expirations are short, it 
makes the reading sound jerky; while if they are too long, it 
gives the hearer the impression that the reader is "running 
down." The length of this phase of the breathing act must 
vary with the material read, the inflection, force, and other 
factors which influence the reading. Evidently one of the 
important factors in developing this type of coordination is the 
length of the expiration period. 

Another point connected with breathing is the relation of the 
inspiration periods to sense pauses, punctuation marks, etc. 
Results upon this problem show that there is very little relation 
between the two elements. This means that a child does not 
look ahead and determine in any fashion the points at which 
he should make inspirations, but depends entirely upon the 
fact that he is out of breath at certain places. Under such con- 
ditions the points for inspiration may be or may not be at a 
sense pause or a punctuation mark. These facts indicate 
clearly enough that for most children articulation and oral 
expression are two independent processes. Respiration, which 
is a part of the physiological process of articulation, may pro- 
ceed in a way to be of direct assistance in expression or it may 
go on in a way which gives every evidence that control and 
adjustment are lacking. In the first case the demands of em 
phasis and expression are met through pauses dictated by the sense 
of the passage rather than by respiration. In the latter case the 
breathing pauses are probably produced by nervousness or 
sporadic nervous impulses, rather than by the sense of the pas- 
sage read or by the ordinary laws of respiration. In con- 



172 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

elusion, breathing is an organic process which is closely related 
to reading. The methods of control are usually left to the 
child's own devices, and as a result many different types of 
control are to be found. Without doubt this phase of oral 
reading should receive more attention at the hands of teachers. 



CHAPTER XI 

EYE-MOVEMENTS AND EXTRANEOUS MOVEMENTS IN 
THEIR RELATION TO READING ABILITY: DIAGNOSIS 
BASED UPON A STUDY OF THE MOTOR ELEMENTS 
IN THE READING PROCESS 

This chapter will concern itself first with eye-movements. 
Eye-movements accompany all reading which proceeds by 
means of visual perception. The coordinations which are in- 
volved in the movements of the eyes as they adjust themselves 
to various situations are developed very early in the life of the 
child. As a result the part which the eye plays in the reading 
of both children and adults seldom comes into the consciousness 
of the reader. Therefore, most teachers of reading have failed 
to see any relation between reading ability and eye-movements, 
and have disregarded this important phase of the reading prob- 
lefn. Such a lack: of interest is also due to the fact that most 
of the investigations in this field have been made by men who 
cared little about the educational bearing of the problem. 
Recently this phase of reading has been attacked by those whose 
interest in it grows out of its educational significance, and as 
these results are more clearly understood it may be expected 
that reading teachers will lay greater stress upon such in- 
vestigations. 

The Relation between Eye-movements and 
Reading Ability 

One approach to this problem is through the discussions of 
investigators in this field. One such treatment of the problem 
by Dearborn (9) may be quoted, as follows: 

These movements are not only subject to the influence of the direction of 
thought as words and phrases are read and assimilated, but they are also 

173 



174 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

directly concerned in the sensory processes of perception. The pecuHar 
jerky and interrupted form of movement which is more exactly a series of 
alternate pauses and movements is due in part both to the requirements of 
appreciation and assimilation and to the physiological Hmitations of percep- 
tion. This two-fold relation of these movements with the control activities 
on the one hand, and on the other hand as the necessary accessory to a periph- 
eral organ of sensation gives them an intermediary position between sensa- 
tion and recognition and between thought and motor expressions which is of 
particular interest for the cues or indices which study of them may give of 
some of the workings of the mind. 

Another approach to the problem is gained by making ob- 
servations of eye-movements while reading is in progress. One 
method by which this plan may be used is shown in Figure 6. 
A is the observer and B the subject. The subject reads the 
material at his left, while the observer gives attention to the 
movements of the subject's eyes in the mirror M. In this way 
it may be seen that the movements are not continuous but are 
in the nature of jerks and pauses. After some practice in 
such observations, it is possible to count with a fair degree of 
accuracy the pauses in any one line. It will also be observed 
that the return movement of the eye from the end of the Ime 
to the beginning of the next line is in the nature of a long sweep. 
Further, it may be noted by the same method that most of the 
movements in any one line are in a forward direction, but that 
a few of the movements may be in a backward direction. Such 
observations stand in direct contrast to popular opinion in 
regard to such matters. Most readers think that they read with 
a continuous movement of the eyes and that they read entire 
blocks of material or an entire page at a time rather than line 
by line. 

After such preliminary observation, probably the simplest 
way in which to convince oneself of the importance of eye- 
movements in their relation to reading ability is to think of 
them in terms of perception. The movements of the eye across 
the page are of such a nature as to allow a series of short peeps 
at the material. In this way, eye-movements reduce reading 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 175 

to a series of short exposures. It is apparent that the pupil 
who is able to use the fewest and shortest peeps or exposures is 
the most efficient reader. The conditions and the training 
which enable the pupil to become efficient in this procedure are 
important problems which confront every teacher. 

The problems connected with eye-movements are many and 
varied. The most obvious of these problems are the number 
and the length of both the forward and backward movements 
during the reading and the location of the pauses within the 
reading matter. When such data have been determined, 
further problems immediately arise as to the causes which lead 
to a very small or a large number of pauses, the causes which 
lead to exceedingly long or short pauses, the effect which train- 
ing has upon such practices, and finally the effect which would 
come from allowing children to have this problem before them 
in a conscious way. 

Methods of Studying Eye-movements. The simplest method 
of dealing with eye-movements is to observe them by means of 
a mirror, or by means of a telescope. The mirror method has 
been made the basis of an extensive investigation by Landolt 
(25). Later the same method was used by Erdmann and 
Dodge (12). Hendricks (16) has also reported results from 
examining a few children by the mirror method, and a special 
form of mirror for such observations has been devised by Free- 
man (13). Barnes (4) has reported some data secured by 
means of a telescope. These methods give only a limited 
amount of data. Only rough estimates can be made concern- 
ing the length of the various pauses or the location of them 
within the reading matter. For this reason, their use was dis- 
continued as soon as better methods were devised. However, 
the mirror method is without doubt the best method to be used 
by teachers and children in the schoolroom. 

A second method which has been used for the study of eye- 
movements may be spoken of as the acoustic method. This 
procedure was used by Lamare (24) and Javal (19). Such a 



176 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



plan requires the attachment of a delicate microphone to the 
eyeUd. In this manner the sHght sounds which accompany 
the contraction of the muscles when the eye moves may be 
heard. This method gives no more data than does the mirror 
method, and for this reason it has been used but little. 

The third method may be referred to as the after-image 
method. This was first used by Volkmann (38) and later by 
Lamansky (23). It involved the flashing of a ray of light into 




Fig. 6 

Showing Method of Observing Eye-movements 

the eye at regular intervals through the perforations of a rotat- 
ing disk. The subject was required to count the number of 
after-images produced during a certain movement of the pencil 
of light. Dodge (11) used a variation of this method in some 
of his work. He required his subjects to look intently at a 
small wedge-shaped illuminated body until there resulted a 
distinct after-image. The subject then read a passage and 
noted the pauses of the after-image as the reading progressed. 
A slightly modified form of Dodge's plan has been used by 
Barnes (4). Any form of this method is open to very serious 
criticism because it depends on memory, because the after- 
image is a constant distraction, and because the data procured 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 177 

by it are limited. For these reasons it has never had general 
use. 

The fourth method used for the study of the problem at hand 
was de\dsed by Huey (i8). This method requires that a small 
plaster-of-Paris cup be attached to the cornea of the eye. To 
this small cup was attached a delicate string. This ran over a 
small pulley and was then attached to a pointer. Any move- 
ment of the eye moved the pointer and these movements were 
recorded upon a mo\ing drum. This method was first suggested 
by Ahrens (2). His idea was that an ivory cup could be at- 
tached to the eye. This was found not to be practicable, and 
Delebarre (10) suggested a plaster-of-Paris cup. Huey per- 
fected this suggestion. 

Such a method may be successful in the laboratory with a 
few subjects, but the placing of the cup on the cornea precludes 
its use mth any large number of people. It is clear, also, that 
it would be almost impossible to use such a method with chil- 
dren. For these reasons its use has been very much limited. 

A fifth method, which can hardly be designated by a single 
word, was used by Schackwitz (31). It consisted in placing 
a delicate tambour against the wall of the eye. By this means 
the movements were recorded upon a moving drum. 

The last method to be mentioned may be spoken of as the 
photographic method. The plan used by Judd (20 and 21) 
required the use of a moving picture camera. In order to have 
a point of reference for the interpretation of the records, this 
investigator placed a bit of china-white upon the cornea of 
the eye. This method is usually considered to be the most 
accurate of any that has been devised for the study of eye- 
movements, but the use of the china-white almost precludes its 
use with children. 

The photographic method was also used by Dodge (11). 
His procedure consisted in reflecting a beam of light from the 
cornea of the eye into the lens of a camera. The beam of light 
was focused upon a moving plate. In this way a record of the 



178 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

movements of the eye was made. This method furnishes a 
delini e objective record of the movements from which it is 
possible to determine the number of pauses per Une. It is also 
possible, by introducing a timing device, to calculate the length 
of each pause, and then by superimposing the material read on 
the photographic record to determine with a Tiigh degree of 
accuracy the location of the pauses in the reading matter. 
These points, along with the fact that the method lends itself 
to use \^ith children, has led to its use by more investigators 
than any other method. Certain defects of this plan of pro- 
cedure have been pointed out by Judd, but these objections have 
been answered in part, if not entirely, by Dodge. 

The work done by the authors thus far mentioned has been 
from the standpoint of general psychology. The first investi- 
gator to attack the problem from the educational standpoint 
was Dearborn (9). He used but very few children as subjects, 
but his work has stimulated others to choose their subjects 
from the schoolroom. After Dearborn's work comes that of 
Schmidt (34). This investigator modified the apparatus used 
by Dearborn so that it could be used more readily with children. 
He also replaced the falling plate upon which the photographic 
record was made by a mo\dng film which allowed a record of 
more reading to be made. A further modification of the 
apparatus is the use of two photographic lenses instead of one. 
Such a change allowed a record to be made for each of the eyes. 
This author was the first to base his work upon the reading of 
children. The nmnber of children used in his investigation 
was thirty-eight. The writer (14) has modified still further 
the apparatus used by Dearborn. Certain of these modifica- 
tions make it much easier to deal with children, and others 
make it possible to study the eye-movements of oral reading in 
a way that had not been done before. This work was based 
upon the reading of children. Judd (22) has also reported 
some results which were procured by the method just described. 
This brief summary is sufficient to inchcate the general 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AXD READING 179 

method which must be used if this important phase of the 
reading process is to be studied in detail. It should also be 
noted that it is only recently that this problem has been attacked 
by those interested in its educational aspects, and the data 
collected from the reading of cMldren are limited. The re- 
maining portion of the discussion vail be devoted to the some- 
what detailed description of the last method mentioned and a 
discussion of the results obtained by it. This method may be 
described briefly as the photographic method for recording 
eye-movements by means of the reflection of a beam of light 
from the eye. 

Reflection of Light from the Eye. The first point to' be men- 
tioned in this connection is that the surface of the eye acts as 
a mirror when Hght falls upon it. An mstance similar to this 
is the glare of a cat's eye at night. This glare is caused by the 
reflection of Hght from the animal's eye. A second fact is that 
the surface of the human eye is made up of the surfaces of two 
spheres of unequal size. One of these is the surface of the ball 
of the eye and the other is the cornea. The movement of the 
eye takes place about the center of the large sphere. Now if 
a beam of Hght is reflected from the cornea and the eye turns 
sHghtly upon the center of the large sphere, the angle of re- 
flection for a ray of Hght coming from some fixed source is 
changed, and hence the reflected ray "^^dll move. Hence, if, 
during reading, the reflected beam is focused on a mo\ing film, 
it is possible to record the changes in the direction of the re- 
flected beam, and these changes are taken as an indication of 
the movements of the eye. 

Source of Light. The source of Hght usualty used in such 
work is an arc Hght such as was formerly used in street Hghting. 
The complete apparatus for furnishing Hght is shown in Figure 7. 
The arc light is inclosed in the house B. .4 is a rheostat which 
aUows a greater or less amount of current to pass through the 
arc, so that the intensity of the Hght may be varied. After 
lea^ing the arc, the Hght passes through the two lenses in- 



180 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



dicated by C. Between these lenses there is a tank filled with 
water which cools the light. The lenses at C bring the light 
to a focus at E. At this point there is placed a diaphragm with 
a small hole in it so that all marginal light is eliminated. After 
the hght passes this point of focus it disperses again but another 
lens G is placed in its path at the proper distance so that from 
this point the light is composed of parallel rays. At H the light 
passes through a violet glass. This reduces the effect of the 
light upon the eye. 

Attention should also be called to the tuning fork F. One 
prong of this is made to vibrate in the path of the light at the 





Fig. 7 
The Light 

point of focus. This interruption of the light has the effect of 
making the record upon the film a series of dots instead of a 
continuous line. This is important, because if the time of the 
fork is known it is possible to determine the length of the 
various pauses in the eye-movement record by counting the dots 
and the spaces between them. 

The Camera. It is also necessary to have a camera devised 
for this particular problem. Such a camera is shown in Figure 8. 
After the light is reflected from the eyes, it passes into the 
photographic lenses at B and is focused upon a film encased at 
E. The film used is the same as that used in the ordinary 
camera and is moved by a motor on the floor below the camera 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



181 



but not shown in the figure. Various adjustments which are 
provided for on every good camera, such as the vertical and 
horizontal movement of the lenses, can be made by the rods 
indicated at A and C. These adjustments are made somewhat 
compHcated in this case by the fact that there are two lenses 
and that these lenses must move independently. In order to 




Fig. 8 
The Camera 



facilitate focusing, the bellows B is placed at the back end of 
the camera. 

The Headrest. Another important part of the apparatus is 
the headrest. Casual observations show that many pupils 
move the head and shoulders while reading. These extraneous 
movements have little if any relation to the reading activity. 
Many of these movements are so gross as to make impossible 
an interpretation of the photographic records of the eye- 
movements. In some cases they may be sufficiently large to 
throw the beam of light entirely off the film. In order to con- 
trol this element in the reading process, a headrest is used. 
Such a piece of apparatus is shown in Figure 9. When the 
subject is in position, the pads marked A come in contact with 
the cheek bone, and the head is encircled by the iron collar B. 
This collar is shown in a vertical position at C. The different 
pads which come in contact with four different points of the 



182 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



head can plainly be seen. The relations of the various parts 
of the entire apparatus are shown diagrammatically in Figure lo. 




^=3 



0=' 



V 
A 



, r ' I 




A_h. 



Fig. 9 

The Headrest 

Eye-movement Records. Figure 1 1 shows a number of records 
made by the technique just described. A study of record A 
may begin at a. This point is the end of a line, and the sweep 
of the eye to b brings it to the beginning of a new line. After 
the eye reaches the point b where it begins the reading of a 
new line it remains stationary for a short time. This stationary 
period of the eye is shown by the vertical line from b to c; that is, 
since the film is moving vertically, there is a vertical line made 
whenever the eye is still. From c the eye moves a short hori- 
zontal distance to d and remains stationary again for a period 
of time indicated by the line from d to e. This process is re- 
peated until the point / is reached. Here, instead of the move- 
ment's being in a forward direction, it is backward toward the 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



183 



beginning of the line. Such movements are spoken of as re- 
gressi^•e movements, and are probably due to the fact that the 
interpretation up to that point was not complete for some 
reason, and thus the eye was shitted backward in order that the 
first interpretation might be supplemented. 




Fig. io 
Shoii'ing Relations of Parti of Photographic Apparatus 

G purple glass 




rheostat 
arc 

condensing lenses 
diaphragm 
tuning fork 
condensing lenses 



E mirrors 

I eyes 

/ camera 

K ground glass 

L speed reducer 

M motor 



Record c is composed of dots. These dots are produced by 
the vibrations of the timing fork. By counting them and the 
spaces between them it is possible to determine the length of 
time during which the eye remained stationary. This is highly 
important, because it may be thought of as the period of time 
which is required for interpretation to take place. 




Showing Photographic Eye-movement Records Much Enlarged 
A, Normal adult reading; B, Highly rhythmical adult reading; C. Form of record 
from which time of various pauses may be determined; D, Record from very slow 
adult reading; E and F, records from slow and inaccurate readers in the sixth grade. 

184 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



185 



This doubtless carries the discussion far enough to show that 
a study of such records will furnish the following types of data: 
(i) the number of forward movements, (2) the number of re- 
gressive movements, (3) the length of the forward movements, 
and (4) the length of the regressive movements. In addition 
to this, it is possible to superimpose the photographic record 
upon the material read and so determine the various points in 
the reading matter where the eye pauses. In Table XIX data 
are given concerning the first four points. The total number 
of subjects represented here is less than fifty; hence the results 
cannot be taken as final. The lowest school grade is the third. 
The material read was different for each grade, but was selected 
so as to be within the ability of each grade. 

The Forward Movements. It will be noted that there is a 
decrease in the number of pauses per line as the upper grades are 

Table XIX 
Data Concerning Eye-movement Records in Silent Reading 















Average 




Average 


Average 
Length 


Average 


Average 


Average 


Variation 


Grade 


No. of 


Variation 


No. of 


Length of 


for Length 


Pauses 


for Length 


Regressive 


Regressive 


of Regres- 




per Line 




of Pauses 


Movements 


Movements 


sive Move- 
ments 


3 


10. 


14.2 


4.1 


2.4 


12.4 


2-3 


4 


9.1 


12.5 


2.9 


2.1 


II-5 


1-3 


5 


10. 


13-8 


3-5 


2.4 


12.0 


1 .1 


6 


7-S 


12.5 


3-1 


1-4 


9.8 


1-3 


7 


7.8 


13-6 


2,-S 


1-5 


9.0 


0.8 


H. S. 


6.4 


"•5 


2-S 


0.8 


■^.6 


0.2 


C. 


6.9 


"•3 


2.6 


1 .1 


8.1 


0.5 



reached. If more pupils had been used, it is highly probable 
that the irregularities would have disappeared in a measure. 
The decrease in the number of pauses means that there is an 
increase in the span of perception. This may come both from 
experience and from familiarity with language forms. Under 
these conditions interpretation must take place in larger units 
in the upper school grades than it does in the lower grades. 



186 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

From this standpoint, it would seem that a well-taught child 
is one who is able to deal with reading material in large units. 

From the table it will also be noted that the length of the 
pauses decreases as the upper grades are reached, and again it 
may be supposed that the irregularities would disappear in a 
measure if a larger number of subjects had been used. Such a 
decrease is doubtless due to experience and to familiarity with 
language forms. It may also be possible that maturity plays 
its part. This decrease shows that in the upper grades a cer- 
tain unit of material can be interpreted in a shorter period of 
time than in the lower grades. From this standpoint, a well- 
taught child is one who has learned to deal with units of meaning 
in a minimum of time. 

The above discussion has shown that the most efficient reader 
is one who deals with large units of material and who at the 
same time is able to bring about interpretation of such units 
in a minimum of time. However, the most rapid readers are 
not always those who make the fewest pauses per line nor those 
who make the shortest pauses. In other words, it seems pos- 
sible to reduce the number of pauses per line, as well as their 
length, beyond the point where efficient reading is possible. 
By referring to the table again, it will be noted that the average 
variation for the length of the pauses also decreases through 
the grades. This means that the reading is more stable. 

Regressive Movements. The column for the number of re- 
gressive movements shows that there is a decrease of such move- 
ments through the grades. To understand this, it is necessary 
to remember that every movement of the eyes forward is liter- 
ally a leap into the dark. The causes which determine the 
location of the pauses of the eye in reading have not been 
thoroughly established; but apparently experience enables the 
reader to reduce the number of mistakes which are made in the 
location of the points for the pauses of the eyes, and as a result 
reading becomes more dependable and more stable. There is 
some evidence that mature and experienced readers use the 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 187 

regressive movement in an entirely different way. Such readers 
may use these movements as periods of organization. In such 
cases the reader rushes forward over the material and then 
makes a regressive movement in order to organize the meaning 
of the material which has been hastened over. In cases of this 
kind regressive movements represent a method of reading 
rather than failures in interpretation. Movements of this type 
can usually be identified by their length both in time and in 
space covered. 

Further facts concerning regressive movements are shown in 
the last two columns of Table XIX. The next to the last column 
shows that there is a decrease in the length of the regressive 
movements through the various grades. This means that 
through training and experience the reader is able to make a 
quicker "recovery" when a regressive movement is necessary. 
The last column shows clearly that the reading of adults and 
high school students is much more stable than that of the lower 
grades. In all this discussion it must be remembered that there 
are many exceptions to these general rules. In fact, Schmidt 
says: 

The motor behavior of the eyes in reading differs in the cases of children 
from that of adults, not so much in numbers and duration of pauses, nor in 
steadiness and precision of fixation, but rather in frequency of refixation 
and the regidarities affecting the number and the duration of pauses, refixa- 
tions and average deviations being more' in evidence in the case of the ele- 
mentary and even the high school grades than in the case of adults. All of 
this goes to show, of course, that children develop at an early age a high 
degree of motor control but that their habits are as yet largely unformed. 

Undoubtedly what this author says is true of the cases which 
he studied, but since his investigation other researches have 
shown that there are differences between adults and children as 
to the number and duration of pauses as well as to steadiness 
and precision of fixation. ^ 

Eye-movements for Oral Reading. Table XX gives data con- 
cerning eye-movements during oral reading. Here, again, there 



188 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



is a decrease in the number of pauses, length of pauses, etc., in 
the upper grades as compared with the lower grades. Such con- 
ditions grow out of the greater experience and training which 
those in the upper grades have had. 

This table also shows that the number of pauses and the 
length of pauses, as well as the number of regressive movements 
and their length, are greater than in silent reading. This is 
due to the fact that the vocalization movements in oral reading 
do not allow the movements of the eyes to proceed at the same 

Table XX 
Data Concerning Eye-movement Records in Oral Reading 



Selection 

and 

Grade 


Average 
No. of 
Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average 
Variation 


Average 

No. of 

Regressive 

Movements 


Average 

Length of 

Regressive 

Movements 


Average 
Variation 


4 


13-3 


14.4 


3-5 


3-2 


13 I 


31 


5 


9-3 


13-7 


3-9 


2.1 


13s 


1.9 


6 


9.0 


13.0 


5-4 


30 


12.5 


4.0 


7 


10.6 


13 -I 


4.2 


2.7 


II. 7 


1-5 


H. S. 


7.8 


12.8 


3-7 


1 .1 


3-9 


0-3 


C. 


8.8 


12.9 


3-4 


1.6 


7.8 


1.6 



rate as in silent reading. In other words, the eyes, or better, 
the attention, has to mark time while the vocal movements are 
proceeding at a rate which is comparatively slow. This retard- 
ing of the movements of the eyes results in a greater number of 
pauses and in longer pauses than is true in silent reading. 
Therefore, the units by which oral reading proceeds are small 
as compared with those in silent reading, and the time taken 
for interpretation is unnecessarily lengthened. This can only 
mean that a large amount of training in oral reading makes for 
mental lethargy and for slow reading. 



The Location of Eye-movement Pauses within 
Reading Material 

It is possible to superimpose the photographic records upon 
the selection read in a way which allows the points of fixation 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



189 



to be located. The location of the pauses made in reading a 
selection is shown in Figure 12. This reading was done by an 
excellent reader in the sixth grade. The first pause, as indicated 
by the digits above the vertical lines, was made at the second 
"o" in "portion." This is to the right of the beginning of the 
line, as usually happens in the case of the first pause; but this 



h portion ( 



portion of the (brecian host brike up camp and 



etsailasif tn< 



z s 

ey were homaward bound; but.bnce 



( 

I; but,pn 



but of 



sight, they anchon 

Fig. 12 



d their ships qehind i 



Showing the Location of Eye-Movement Pauses in the Reading of a Rapid 
and Accurate Sixth-grade Reader 

seems to be too far to the right, or, in other words, the reader 
has overreached himself and has to make a regressive move- 
ment back to the beginning of the line. From this point the 
fixations occur at 3, 4, and 5 in regular order. In line 2 the 
first fixation is made at the very beginning of the Une. This is 
probably due to the series of small words at this place in the 
line. After this the pauses are made in regular order. In line 
three two facts are significant. First, the regressive movement 
at the beginning of the line is unusual; and second, the last 



190 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

pause, which is made at the extreme end of the line, does not 
follow ordinary procedure. The reading of this pupil was 
characterized by his teacher as being excellent on most occasions 
but at times too rapid. It will be seen that this description 
corresponds closely to the facts brought out by the eye-move- 
ment record. It may also be said that the reading of this 
pupil represents in a fairly accurate way the adult type of reader. 
It is characterized chiefly by few pauses. This means that 
recognition proceeds in phrases rather than small units. The 
regularity of the movements indicates that the entire reading 
process is under good control, and that interpretation proceeds 
in an easy and accurate fashion. Other children whose reading 
is of the adult type have been found in the second and third 
grades. The fact that such reading occurs in these early grades 
indicates clearly that many phases of the reading habit are 
fixed much earlier than was formerly supposed. Such facts 
make it imperative that the results of very early training in 
reading be better understood. 

A very different type of reading is to be seen in Figure 13. 
This reading was done by a sixth -grade boy who was a poor 
reader. The reading of the first line begins at the very be- 
ginning of the line and proceeds in very small units to four, 
where there is a regressive movement. To explain a backward 
movement like five is difficult. It certainly is not due to the 
fact that the reading has proceeded in such large units that 
any word or words have been left out. It may be possible that 
interpretation is taking place in a very lame and halting manner 
so that it is necessary to go backward merely as a means of 
facilitating the interpretation of material which had already 
come within the field of perception. Attention should also be 
called to the movement from six to seven. Such a movement 
might easily be made by many average readers, but for this 
reader the amount of material covered seems to be too great and 
the regressive movement eight is made. Following this there 
are two pauses in the word "home" and then a leap to the latter 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



191 



part of "bound." It would be very interesting to know whether 
the two ideas "homeward bound" were included among those 
which made up the interpretation given for the passage by this 
reader or whether these ideas were among the many which such 
readers do not get. Another interpretation of such a move- 
ment as that from ten to eleven is that it represents a faulty 
eye-movement. In cases of this kind the reader may not be 
able to avail himself of the criteria which should determine 



S 9 

3 ¥ 4 f 7 /o 



// /2 



set sail ailiflthiy werfe htrieward bound : but, bhcc 



/¥ n 



f f 



Z 3 



7 f> 9 



10 ft f3 /^ IZ iS 



oui 4ftsight tbej tnctivrej their] ships bqhipd a 

Fig. 13 

Showing the Location of Eye- movement Pauses in the Reading of a Poor 

Sixth-grade Reader 



where his eyes should stop. Again, the stimulus to the muscles 
of the eye may be such that too long a movement is made. The 
last point to be noted in connection with hne one is that the 
final word seems to have been spelled out. 

The second line does not represent anything very different 
from the first. Note again the very short units and the frequent 
regressive movements. Such reading as this may be thought 
of as being on the level where the reading process begins. From 
such a standpoint, this pupil in the sixth grade is one who has 
never progressed from the level upon which his reading began. 
In reading of this type the units of recognition are very small. 
In most cases the reading proceeds word by word and in certain 



192 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

places even letter by letter. For such pupils the span of per- 
ception is either very much limited or the training has not been 
such as to give the pupil the power to use his full span of recog- 
nition. It should be emphasized that the subject in this case 
was neither a dullard nor an exceedingly backward child. He 
was active and alert mentally, but for some reason he had never 
mastered reading. 

The Location of the Pauses of the Eyes in Reading. The 
question involved is, Why does the eye stop at any particular 
point in printed material? Another question closely related 
to this one is, Why, in the case of many readers, is there so 
much variation in the distance between pauses? 

A general answer to these questions is that apparently this 
phase of the reading process depends, almost entirely, upon the 
span of perception. If the span is large, the distance between 
the pauses is relatively large; whereas if the span is small, the 
distance between the pauses is also small. If this be true the 
pauses for any one reader should be almost the same distance 
apart when the material to be read is reasonably familiar and 
homogeneous in meaning. The lack of homogeneity in material 
makes the distance between pauses of the eyes a variable 
quantity in material which is famihar to the reader. There are 
many factors in printed language which have a tendency to 
decrease the span of perception while reading is in progress. 
At times during the reading process the span is relatively long; 
again it may shrink; and then again it may approach its normal 
length. This shrinking of the span apparently depends upon 
difficulties in interpretation. If material is difficult to interpret, 
it evidently does not lend itself to the usual method which the 
reader uses for grouping the parts into larger units; or it may 
be said that the various units cannot be associated easily. 

To solve the problem of the location of the pauses, then, re- 
quires that those elements in the thought involved in the printed 
language which tend to break down the regular methods of 
association of the reader be determined. Dearborn (9) has 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 193 

called attention to the fact that short connective and non- 
substantive wods, prepositional phrases, and dates require 
more pauses than do nouns, adjectives, and verbs. He thinks, 
also, that capital and dominating letters play their part in the 
location of pauses. It is his opinion, further, that punctuation 
marks prove an obstacle to some persons in their reading. 
Schmidt (34) thinks that there is a tendency on the part of 
readers to iixate an apperceptive unit in the central part of that 
unit. This method of procedure is facilitated, according to 
Schmidt, by the contributions of peripheral vision and context, 
and is interfered with by defective motor control, by short- 
lived motor habits, and by the demands of analysis. Schmidt 
holds, further, that the pauses do not seem to fall within any 
particular type of words. It is probably true that many other 
factors which are little understood, in addition to those already 
mentioned, have much to do with this problem. 

The problem at hand has a very practical significance if it is 
viewed from the standpoint of the selection of material for 
beginners. In order that correct reading habits may be formed, 
it seems highly desirable that when the child begins reading 
he should have maferial, in so far as it is possible, which 
will allow the reading process to proceed in units of uniform 
length. 

Another type of reading which is of interest is shown in 
Figure 14. Judd (22) has spoken of points such as that indi- 
cated under the brace as periods of confusion. Such periods 
are described by this author as follows: 

There must be a corresponding degree of mental effort during such a 
period of confusion. The continuity' of thought must be seriously interrupted 
and the mechanical side of the reading process which consists in the effort 
to master words must occupy thj center of attention. 

Even this description is probably too optimistic in its assumption that 
recognition results from wanderings of the eye. Wandering fixations repre- 
sent an effort that does not in the end bring any meaning to the mind at all. 
In many cases confusion of the type here exhibited is followed by complete 
failure to recognize even the structure of the words. 



194 



ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 



This writer also distinguishes between periods of confusion and 
periods of analysis. In the reading of certain pupils periods 
are to be noted which resemble very much a period of confusion, 
but in some cases these readers have the means at hand for 
analyzing their difficulties; and although interpretation is de- 
layed for the time, the situation is finally mastered and the 
reading proceeds. It may be that pauses 12 and 13 in Figure 13 
represent this situation. If this be the case, complete recog- 
nition did not take place when the eye was focused at 12. As 
a result, a regressive movement to 13 was made. This move- 




/o 



// 13 /Z /^ 



NovfjfflBTtl e bUll turns round, a littlle, and a 



Fig. 14 
Showing Period of Confusion 

ment resulted in complete interpretation, and the reading con- 
tinued. A period of confusion would have meant more delay 
and other movements. The essential difference between a 
period of confusion and a period of analysis is that in analysis 
the reader has a method by which he can solve his difficulty 
while in the periods of confusion no such method appears. 

This discussion may be concluded by noting the pauses in 
oral reading, as seen in Figure 15. This is the record of an 
adult reader. It shows clearly enough that in oral reading 
recognition- proceeds by words rather than phrases, as was 
noted in silent reading. This is in harmony with the earlier 
discussion concerning the methods of oral reading, and shows 
in an objective manner the dangers which may attend too 
great training in oral reading. 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 



195 



The Cumulative Effect of Eye-movements. Short-exposure 
experiments show that the effect of consecutive exposures is 
cumulative in its nature. If a sentence of five words is not 
perceived upon first exposure and is exposed again and again, 
the sentence will finally be recognized in its entirety. This 
shows that the effect of each exposure remains and the cumu- 
lative effect of these various exposures results finally in full 
recognition. 

Another point to be recalled concerning such experiments is 
that recognition under conditions of this type exists on different 



/ 3 Z ¥ S- 



It wis itb 



^7 f 



ipoBsible any lon|ger to kaep Aur footing' 
Z I S If- ^ S q 7 g 

on tie beach. The [wind and the breakers won d 
/ -2 3 ¥5- 4, 7 S 



have swlept 



wlept ui 



intp the ocian if |we had 



not 



clung 



to 



Fig. 15 

Showing Location of Eye-movement Pauses in Oral Reading 

levels. If a sentence of six words is exposed by the methods 
already described, three distinct levels of recognition can many 
times be distinguished. The first three words will be recognized 
so definitely that the subject is perfectly sure of them. In 
contrast to this, he may be very doubtful in his report about 
the next two words, but he is probably willing to hazard a guess 
upon them. Finally, he may report that there is another word 
further to the right, but that he has no idea as to what it is. 
Another way to indicate the differences which exist between 
these levels is to assign some definite value to each. In this 



196 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

case, the first level may be given the value of three, the second 
level the value of two, and the third the value of one. 

The process of reading seems to involve each of the laws of 
perception just discussed. This will be understood by a study 
of Figure i6. The vertical lines indicate eye-movement pauses 
located by the methods already referred to. Perception may 
be thought of as taking place in the following manner: Accord- 
ing to the law of perception above, the attention value at the 
point A would be three. To the right there is a portion of the 
line where an attention value of two may be assigned. This 

ABC 

dark and gleims in the lightlof the sul? In 

^2 1 (y) ^ ^ 

3 2 1 (Z) 

3 2 1 

3 2 

3 

Fig. i6 

Showing Effect of a Wide Span of Perception upon Interpretation 

part may be considered as having its center at B. Again, 
another portion of a line further to the right would have an 
attention value of one assigned to it. The center of this part 
may be placed at C. 

The row of digits designated by X in this figure represents 
the distribution of the attention when the eye is fixated at the 
point indicated by the line A. Now the eye shifts to B. The 
row of figures designated by Y represents the distribution of 
attention with the eye fixated at B. For the interpretation of 
the point B there is an attention value of three plus two. This 
would seem to require that the actual pause of the eye at A 
should be less than that at B. Dearborn has emphasized the 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 197 

fact that for experienced readers the first pause is longer than 
any other in the Une. If the eye moves next to the point C, 
the row of digits designated by Z represents the distribution 
of the attention at this point. Now, for the point C there is an 
attention value of three plus two plus one. It would seem 
again that this pause should be shorter than the preceding one. 
Certain cases can be found where this is true, yet there seems 
to be no general rule to this effect. This is probably due to the 
fact that an attention value of one makes very little contribution 
to interpretation, and that it is almost impossible to get per- 
fectly homogeneous reading material for experimental purposes. 

If the above is a true description of the cumulative effects 
of eye-movements, it is easy to see the advantage of a long 
span of perception over one that is short. A reader endowed 
with a short span does not have the advantage of the cumulative 
effect which grows out of the successive eye-movement pauses. 
It is true that such results may occur in some slight degree where 
the span is short, but in such instances the cumulative effect 
would result in the recognition of syllables or individual words 
rather than the recognition of those units which allow inter- 
pretation to proceed rapidly. 

The Overlapping of the Fields of Perception during Eye- 
movements. A wide span of perception also plays an important 
part in reading in that it allows an overlapping of the different 

Fig. 17 
Shoiving Probable Overlapping of the Fields of Perception during Reading 

fields of perception as the eye moves along the line. If the eye 
is fixated at ^ , as shown in Figure 17, then the field of perception 
extends both to the right and to the left of this point, as from 
N to O. Now if the eye moves to B, the new field of perception 
may extend from P to Q. There would be an overlapping of 
the fields as indicated by the distance P 0. It is clear that such 



19S ANALYSIS OF RF AlMNd ARllArV 

ONOvlappino- is Ukoh' lo oa-ur if the .^pan of perception is long 
rather than il it is short. Investigators seem to agree that 
there must be such an oxerlapping of the dilTerent fields ot per- 
ception if reading is to be ethcient. This is necessary n^ order 
that the dilTerent parts of the thought may be related and con- 
nected as the reading proceeds. On the other hand, it the 
r,old< do not oNcrlap. ^vords are left out and interpretation 
proceeds in disconnected units which can have but little, il any, 
meaning. It mav be, however, that the experienced reader 
when dealin- with familiar material is able to get the thought 
in a salisfactorv manner, even if the t\elds of perception do not 
overlap In fact, such a reader may deliberately use lixation 
points which do not allow any part of the t\elds of perception 
to coincide. The success of such reading depends upon the 
reader's having a detinite point in mind for which he is looking 
or upon a general knowlecige of the context. The process ol 
skimniing must proceed in a manner similar to this. Evidently 
it is necessarv for children to develop such a control ol the move- 
ments of their eves that this overlapping will occur in the proper 
way. If the l\elds of perception overlap each other m too great 
a degree, there may be repetitions and confusion; while it the 
overhipping does not occur, omissions may result which will 
break the continuitv of thought. 

Piiurcmrs behcccn Good and Poor Readers. It is probable 
that "the contrast between good and poor readers is set lorth 
more clearh- bv means of the stud>- of ey.-movements than m 
any other wav. In many cases the poor readers exhibit the 
foliowin- characteristics: u) ^^^vny pauses; V-^) V'-^O" ^^^'V^ 
pauses; vO li^^^-^*-^ muuber of regressive movements; (4' 1^^"S 
regressive movements; and (5) periods of confusion. In those 
ca'ses where the reading is poor because it is too rapid, the 
reader mav reduce either the number of pauses or their length 
beyond the point where good reading is possa-.le. Further tlian 
thi-^ the location of pauses in poor reading indicates that penph- 
oril N-i-ion and context plav only a small part in such reading. 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 199 

Another phase of this problem has to do with the time in' the 
development of the child's reading ability when the character- 
istics of poor reading or of good reading first show themselves. 
In so far as data have been collected upon the early develop- 
ment of reading ability, the indication is that the character- 
istics show themselves as early as the second grade. In fact, 
the writer has some data which indicate clearly that some of the 
foregoing characteristics of poor reading are present in the very 
earliest reading of certain children, and that other children have 
from the very first many of the characteristics of good readers. 
This means that some children begin with the characteristics 
of good readers and develop into better and better reade "s. 
On the other hand, other children begin with the characteristics 
of poor readers and remain poor readers. Whether children 
ever begin with the characteristics of poor readers and become 
excellent readers is not known. The solution of this problem 
will require that the early development of reading ability be 
better understood. It is an important problem which deserves 
the attention of the most competent investigators. 

The discussion of eye-movements may be summarized as 
follows: (i) A detailed study of eye-movements reveals five 
types of data concerning reading. These are number and 
length of forward movements, number and length of regressive 
movements, and the location of pauses in the reading material. 
(2) Data concerning eye-movements indicate many of the 
changes produced in the reading process by training. (3) Eye- 
movement records reveal very clearly differences between good 
and poor readers. (4) Eye-movement records aid in de- 
termining the relation of the span of perception to reading 
ability. 

Extraneous Movements 

The movements to be included under this head are those 
which have little if anything to do with the reading process. 
Those which may be noted in almost any school room are rais- 



200 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

ing or lowering one or both shoulders, jerking the head forward 
or backward, and other movements which involve the greater 
part of the body. In most cases the children who exhibit such 
movements are poor readers. From this standpoint such 
movements probably indicate a lack of adjustment to the situa- 
tion involved. in reading. This means that the nervous stimuli 
leave the different nerve centers which are involved in reading 
over paths which are not in any way connected with the nervous 
control of the reading process. As a result, of this, muscles 
which are not involved in reading are brought into use. To 
appreciate the problem with which the child is confronted in 
his first reading it is necessary to consider the situation in 
which he is placed the first time he attempts to read. In this 
situation the child is required to hold his book in one hand, and 
to hold the other hand at his side. In addition to this, he 
probably has to stand in a prescribed manner. In this position, 
which is new to him, he has new problems for his eyes, new 
problems of breathing, and new problems for his vocal muscles. 
In any other types of work where the same number of co- 
ordinations was required, the situation would be considered 
an exceedingly difficult one, but in reading very little thought 
is given to the problem. From this view of the matter it is 
clear that anything which would simplify the conditions under 
which the child does his first reading would be desirable. Ex- 
traneous movements usually accompany the reading of begin- 
ners. Certain children carry them over into their later reading, 
and if allowed to continue these movements, they may become 
fixed. 

Diagnosis Based upon the Study of Motor Elements 

Analysis as a Basis for Diagnosis. The discussion of the last 
four chapters has shown two fundamental abilities involved 
in the reading process. These are as follows: (i) The ability 
to react quickly to visual symbols as required in reading, and 
(2) the ability to take on certain motor habits. 



I 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 201 

Reaction Time. This factor has not been studied in a very 
careful manner as yet, and just how large a part it plays in 
reading has not been determined. It seems reasonably clear, 
however, that oral reading may be slow and halting on account 
of the slow way in which the muscles respond to the stimuli. 
The same factor may operate in silent reading if the child reads 
with much vocalization. Another factor in reaction time is 
the rate at which interpretation takes place. This depends 
upon familiarity with language forms and probably upon matur- 
ity as well as native ability. 

Motor Habits. The discussion has sought to show that 
learning to read depends upon the rapidity with which certain 
motor coordinations can be developed. These different co- 
ordinations involve the vocal reaction required in phonics, the 
breathing coordination in oral reading, and the movements of 
the eyes. 

Tests and Observations to be Used in Diagnosis. It is clear 
that observation can be used for recording results upon breath- 
ing Hn oral reading and vocalization in silent reading. Eye- 
movements may be observed by means of a mirror. Such a 
method will indicate both the forward and regressive move- 
ments. Reaction time may be studied by means of the count- 
ing test and the pronouncing test. 

Interpretation 

Relation of Motor Coordinations to Reading Efficiency. The 
studies reviewed show clearly that in many cases poor and 
inefficient readers are those who do not have the proper motor 
coordinations well established. The relation here is not always 
one of cause and effect; yet it seems perfectly feasible to say 
that, if a child is not succeeding in his reading, one method of 
approach to the problem would be by bringing the different 
types of motor coordinations to the attention of such a reader 
and by attempting to establish the proper motor habits. Com- 
prehension depends upon fine motor adjustments, and if the 



202 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

muscular reactions involved in reading are well established, the 
most favorable conditions are set for comprehension. From 
this standpoint, it would seem that instruction in reading should 
take into consideration the motor coordinations in a much larger 
degree than has been true in the past. 

Analysis. The discussion of the motor elements has thrown 
further light upon the relation between analysis and reading 
ability. Such a process is made difficult for the beginner by 
the fact that his oral language is highly synthesized and thus 
analysis becomes a tedious process. In spite of this it must 
be mastered, because eye-movement records show clearly that 
if analysis cannot be accomplished confusion may result in such 
a degree that the entire reading process breaks down. 

Further it has been shown in detail that the motor processes 
involved in the analytical knowledge of words is a complicated 
one which involves entirely new habits. Eye-movement 
records have given further evidence of the importance of ana- 
lytical knowledge of words. Lack of such ability results in 
periods of confusion, while the presence of the ability results 
in the pupil's being able to extricate himself from such diffi- 
culties. 

Rate of Reading. The present discussion has given several 
factors which enter into rate of silent reading. These are as 
follows: reaction time; faulty eye-movements, as seen in too 
many pauses, or too long pauses; lack of analytical ability, as 
seen in periods of confusion; and too much vocalization. 

Comprehension. The discussion of the motor elements has 
shown in detail the way in which a wide span of perception 
functions in rapid reading as a basis for interpretation. 

Rate and Comprehension. The chapters on the motor proc- 
esses have shown that a . rapid reader may reduce either the 
number or the length of his eye-movement pauses. If the 
reduction should be too great comprehension would be poor. 
Again, slow reading is indicated by a large number of eye- 
movement pauses, which reduce the amount of material inter- 






EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 203 

preted at each pause. These small units may also result in 
inaccurate interpretation. 

Quality of Oral Reading. The discussion of the motor ele- 
ments has treated breathing as it relates to this problem. The 
results obtained indicate that, for certain pupils, this organic 
function presents a problem which needs the careful attention 
of the teacher. 

The Relation between Oral and Silent Reading. The question 
of motor coordination is also important from another stand- 
point. After all the motor coordinations enumerated in the 
chapter are fairly well established in oral reading, the child is 
called upon to establish a method of reading in which all the 
motor coordinations except eye-movements are absent. This 
habit is, of course, silent reading. In silent reading the vocal 
reactions should be entirely eliminated. The breathing co- 
ordinations are not required and the eye-movements are very 
different in nature. This serves to emphasize the fact that, from 
the standpoint of the motor processes involved, oral reading and 
silent reading are very different activities. The two types of 
reading have the same stimulus so far as the printed page is 
concerned, but the reactions to the stimulus are very different. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Notice the breathing of professional singers and speakers to see if they 
have a definite system of coordinations for this phase of their work. 

2. Observe the eye-movement of a reader by means of a mirror to see if 
he uses different methods of reading when he is reading for different purposes. 

3. What arguments can you see in favor of making children conscious of 
their motor processes while reading? What arguments can you urge against 
such a procedure? 

4. Is it possible to simplify the complexity of the reading conditions for 
the beginning reader? If so, how? 

5. Would it be possible to take such activities as breathing and eye-move- 
ments into consideration when grading children upon their reading? 

6. If training were carried out to remedy certain defects in the motor co- 
ordinations involved in the reading of a child, would you expect his rate and 
comprehension to improve? Why? 



204 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

7. Make a list of the various motor activities suggested in the preceding 
chapters, and then rate each child in your class with respect to them. Allow 
the children to rate each other. 

8. If you have a child who uses a large amount of vocahzation in his 
silent reading, how can you determine whether this is a habit or a necessary 
phase of his reading act? 

9. What dangers arise from having children in school who have speech 
defects? 

10. If you have the opportunity, visit the oral department of a deaf and 
dumb school to see the methods by which the children are taught to make the 
different sounds. 

11. What values attach to giving children exercises in pronunciation, 
enunciation, rapid counting, and other forms of training in which the muscles 
of the speech organs are made use of in ways which are somewhat unusual? 

12. Does voice training have any place in oral reading work? 

13. What relation exists between eye-movements and the span of percep- 
tion? 

14. Would you undertake to decrease extraneous movements directly or 
indirectly by increasing the efficiency of the reading with the idea that if the 
individual could read better such movements would disappear? 

15. How many children are there in your class whose every motor coordi- 
nation is such that they may be ranked as excellent? 

Bibliography 

1. Abell, A. A., Rapid Reading. Educ. Rev., 1894, 8, 283-286. 

2. Ahrens, A., Die Bewegimg der Augen heim Schreiben. Rostock, 1891. 

3. Aikin, W. A., The Voice. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1910. 

Pp. ix -t- 159. 

4. Barnes, B., Eye-Movements. Ain. Jl. Psy., 1905, 16, 199-207. 

5. Cattell, J. M., The Time Taken up by Cerebral Operations. Mind, 

1886, II, 524-538. 

6. CoUins, J., The Faculty of Speech. A Study in Aphasia. New York, The 

Macmillan Co., 1898. Pp. 427. 

7. Courten, H. C, Involuntary Movements of the Tongue. Yale Psy. 

Studies. 1902, 10. 

8. Curtis, H. S., Automatic Movements of the Larynx. Am.Jl.Psy., 1899, 

II, 237-239. 

9. Dearborn, W. F., The Psychology of Reading. (Col. Cont. to Phil, and 

Psy. 14, No. i) 1906. Pp. 134. ■ 
10. Delabarre, E. B., A Method of Recording Eye-Movements. Am. Jl. 
Psy., 1898, 9, 572-574- 



EYE-MOVEMENTS AND READING 205 

11. Dodge, R., An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation. Psy. Rev., Mon. 

Supp. 1907. Pp. 95. 

12. Erdmann, B. und Dodge, R., Psyckologische Untersuchimgen iiher das 
• Lesen, auf Experimenteller Grundlage. Halle, 1898. 

13. Freeman, F. N., Experimental Education; Laboratory Manual and Typi- 

cal Results. New York, Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1916. Pp. viii + 220. 

14. Gray, C. T., Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and Lab- 

oratory Experiments. (Supp. Educ. Mon. i. No. 5.) Chicago, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press, 1917. Pp. xiv + 196. 

15. Hansen, F. C, and Lehman, A., Uber Unwillkiirliches Fliistem. Phil. 

Stud., 1895, II, 471-531. 

16. Hendricks, E. L., A Study in Reading. Chicago, Silver, Burdett & Co., 

1911. Pp. 30. 

17. Huey, E. B., The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. New York, The 

Macmillan Company, 1908. Pp. 469. 

18. Huey, E. B., On the Psychology and Physiology of Reading. Am. Jl. 

Psy., 1900, II, 283-302. 

19. Javal, Emile, Essai sur la physiologic de la lecture. Annales d'Oculis- 

iique, 1878, 79, 97-117; 1879, 80, 135-147. 

20. Judd, C. H., McAUister, C. N. and Steele, W.M., Introduction to a Series 

of Studies of Eye-Movements by Means of Kinetoscopic Photographs. 
Psy. Rev. Mon. Supp. 1905, 7, 1-16. 

21. Judd, C. H., Photographic Records of Convergence and Divergence. Psy. 

Rev. Monog. Supp. 1907, 8, 370-423. 

22. Judd, C. H., Reading: Its Nature and Development. (Supp. Educ. Mon. 

2, No. 4.) Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918. Pp. xiv + 192. 

23. Lamonsky, S., Uber die Winkelgeschwindigkeit der BHckbewegung. 

Pfluger's Archiv., 1869. Pp. 418 f. 

24. Lamare, , Des Mouvements des Yeux pendant la lecture. Comptes 

rendus de la Societe franqaise D'Ophtalmologie, 1893. Pp. 354 f. 

25. Landolt, , Nouvelles recherches sur la physiologic des mouvements 

des yevLx. Archives d'Ophtahnologie, iSgi, 2. Pp. 385-395. 

26. Miller, F. E., The Voice. New York, G. Schirmer, 1910. Pp. vi + 196. 

27. Paulham, , Le Langage interieur et la pensee. Rev. Phil. 1886, 21, 

28. Pintner, R., Inner Speech. Psy. Rev., 1913, 20, 129-153. 

29. Quantz, J. O., Problems in the Psychology of Reading. Psy. Rev. Mon. 

Supp., 1897, 2, 1-51. 

30. Reed, H. B., The Existence and Function of Inner Speech in Thought 

Process. //. Exp. Psy., 1916, i, 365-392. 

31. Schackwitz, A., Apparat zur Aufzeichnung der Augenbewegungen beim 

zusammenhangenden Lesen, Zsch.f. Psych., 1913, 63, 442-453. 



206 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

32. Scripture, S. W., ExpcrimoUal Phonelics. New York, Chas. Scribncr's 

Sons, 1902. Pp. xvi + 627. 
,-iS. Secor, W. B., Visual Reading: A Study in Mental Imagery. Am. Jl. 

Psy., 1900, II, 225-236. 

34. Schn-ddt, W. A., An Expcrinienlal Study in the Psychology of Reading 

(Supp. Educ. Mon. i. No. 2.) Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 
1917. Pp. 126. 

35. Strieker, , Studien iibcr die Sprachvorstcllimgen. Wien, 1880. 

36. Stumpf, C, Ton-Psychologie. Leipzig, 1883. Pp. 154 ^^ 

37. Sweet, H., Primer of Phonelics. London, Oxford University Press. 

1890. Pp. xiv + 113. 

38. Volkman, A. W., Wagner's Handworlerbiich dcr Physiologle. Braun- 

schweig, 1846, 3, 265-351. 



D. THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY FROM 
THE STANDPOINT OF CERTAIN HIGHER MEN- 
TAL ACTIVITIES 

CHAPTER XII 

ASSOCIATIONS AS REQUIRED IN THE READING ACT 

In addition to those mental functions already discussed, 
reading may involve most, if not all, of the higher activities of 
the mind. The investigation of mental performances of this 
type is more difficult than that of the processes already con- 
sidered. For this reason the amount of scientific data at hand 
concerning them as they relate to reading is not large, and very 
little of that which is available relates to children. It must not 
be inferred from this that reading can be taught without taking 
these activities into consideration. The only point made is 
that the treatment of these processes has not been such as to 
show their place and function in the methods used by teachers. 

It is the purpose of the next three chapters to consider asso- 
ciation, imagery, reasoning, apperception, attention, and com- 
prehension as they relate to reading. The first of these activities 
to be discussed is association. Under this topic will be con- 
sidered the various types of language relations which are 
involved in reading. Fundamentally these relations have to 
do with language symbols and their meaning. The symbols 
involved in reading are conventional and symbolical. There 
is no direct relation between them and their meaning. There 
is in reading, then, a system of associations which is unique and 
which is not a part of the early experiences of the child. There- 
fore if children are to be made familiar with these relations, they 
must be subjected to some type of training. For this reason 
it is highly essential that the laws which underhe this rather 

207 



208 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

unusual and unique type of association should be well under- 
stood by teachers. 

The relation which the child must first become aware of in his 
reading experiences is the one which exists between his oral 
vocabulary and printed or written forms. Children start to 
school with an oral vocabulary which consists of several hundred 
words. This vocabulary involves two factors, the pronuncia- 
tion of words and their meaning. This oral contact with 
language is limited in its scope, because it is auditory in nature 
and does not involve visual elements. When instruction in 
reading begins, the child comes in contact with a written and 
printed vocabulary for the first time. Such training may be 
thought of as enriching in a large degree the child's language 
experiences. 

The problem of early instruction in reading becomes, then, 
one of relating the two types of language, the spoken and the 
written or printed. Through such instruction the child begins 
to build up those associations between language forms and 
their meaning which are necessary in the development of reading 
ability. These associations will be considered further under 
three heads, as follows: (i) The nervous basis for association; 
(2) the association between letters; (3) the association between 
words and other large language units. 

The Nervous Basis for Association. In introducing this topic 
it is realized that there are many conflicting theories in regard 
to it and that the data upon the problem are in many cases 
difficult to interpret. It is highly important, however, that 
teachers should have some contact with this phase of the 
reading process. In order to simplify matters very few authori- 
ties will be referred to. Those who wish to pursue the topic 
further will have little difficulty in finding additional references. 

The nervous mechanism for reading involves the following 
centers of the brain: (i) The visual center, (2) the auditory 
center, (3) the motor centers which control the muscles re- 
quired in speaking, and (4) the centers for visual, auditory, and 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 209 



kinaesthetic memory. Certain authors also posit a center for 
concepts. The relations of these various centers as portrayed 
by Collins (4) are shown in Figure 18. The center V is the 




Fig. iS 
Showing in a Diagrammatic Manner the Relations of the Various Centers 

Involved in the Nervous Control of Speech 
V, Vision; A, Auditory; iT, Kinaesthetic; C, Conception; S, Motor. By Collins 

seat of visual memory; A is the seat of auditory memory; and 
K is that of kinaesthetic memory. It seems that these different 
areas are specialized within themselves. The visual center 
has one portion which serves for verbal or word memory, while 



210 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

other portions of it serve for objects. In the same way there is 
one part of the auditory area which has to do with the memory 
of words and other parts for the memory of other auditory 
experiences. The kinaesthetic area serves as a memory area 
for articulatory motor experiences. The area marked 5" is motor 
in its nature. It is from this area that the motor stimuli which 
produce the articulatory movements involved in spoken lan- 
guage proceed. It is generally thought that certain phases of 
the adjustment and coordination of these movements are 
accomplished in the cerebellum and other lower centers of the 
brain. 

The centers as just enumerated are connected with each other 
by means of association fibers. Certain authors believe that there 
are also association centers. Such centers are usually said to be 
located in the frontal lobes. The entire nervous mechanism 
which has been described is spoken of as the language zone. 
This is represented by Collins as shown in Figure 19. The 
heavy shaded portion to the right is the area of visual memory; 
the heavy shaded area to the left of this is the area of auditory 
memory; while the shaded portion at the extreme left is the 
seat of kinaesthetic memory. In discussing this area Collins 
says that it is probably not strictly delimited. It is better, 
according to this author, to think of it as differing in individual 
cases, and varying at different periods of the same person's life. 
The final development of this area probably depends upon the 
experience and training of the person in the various phases and 
forms of language. Collins emphasizes, further, that while it is 
necessary for purposes of discussion to separate the center for 
visual memory and the centers for concepts, yet such a separa- 
tion does not represent the true state of affairs. It is his opinion 
that a better way to think of this brain area is to consider it as 
made up of a series of centers. From this standpoint, the 
simplest sensations would be the result of a stimulus entering 
one end of the zone and the abstract ideas of a stimulus entering 
the opposite part. 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 211 

A brief discussion may now be given of the various steps in 
the reading process considered from the standpoint of the 
nervous mechanism. Reference is again made to Figure iS. 
Reading must begin with the stimulation of the retina by the 
printed word. This stimulus is conducted to the primary 
visual center in the occipital region. The remaining part of the 




Fig. 19 

Zone of Language; Position of Centers, by Collins 

process can best be understood by a quotation from Collins, as 
follows : 

To recognize and name it [a word] requires all or part of the remainder of 
the Nasual mechanism. The recognition and complete apprehension of the 
object requires further, that the lower visual center be in relationship mth 
the center of visual images, so that images of the object can be contrasted 
with past experiences. If there have been no such past experiences, then 
the object is seen but not recognized or named. In order that the use, func- 
tion, and wider relations of the object may be recognized, the center of visual 
images must be intact and in relationship ^\^th the concept center. To name 
the object apprehended, the concept center must either be in unbroken con- 
nection with the kinaesthetic motor center or with the auditory verbal center, 
which last must then be connected with the kinaesthetic verbal center, or 



212 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

else the connection must be made through the visual center to the auditory 
and kinaesthetic, or to the kinaesthetic direct. It is highly probable that 
the first is nearest to the real condition. These connections being intact, 
with the connection between the visual and concept center unbroken, we 
shall have the perception of the object, followed by the naming of it. 

The known facts indicate that the importance of these cen- 
ters, as just discussed, varies from individual to individual. In 
certain persons the auditory experiences predominate in formu- 
lating oral language, while in other cases the visual experiences 
or the kinaesthetic experiences are doubtless most important. 
In no case, according to most authors, does one of these types of 
memories mentioned above produce oral language. Instead of 
this, it is generally thought that two or more of the different 
types of experiences combine in the production of such language. 

The view of the reading process as presented in the preceding 
pages may noL be absolutely true to the facts, but some such 
procedure must take place, and it seems probable that the fore- 
going makes the situation too simple rather than too complex. 
If this discussion gives a fair portrayal of the reading process, 
teachers cannot fail to be impressed with the complexity of the 
situation and therefore with the difficulty which attaches to it 
for beginners. Such a view also emphasizes the very great part 
which previous experience and training play in interpretation. 
The more times the visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic areas have 
been stimulated, the richer the meaning which attaches to any 
word or group of words. 

Aphasia 

Another phase of the problem at hand is the study of certain 
abnormal cases in which one or more factors in language ability 
have been lost. Some persons who have learned to deal with 
language in all of its aspects lose this ability through some acci- 
dent which injures certain portions of the brain or through some 
disease which causes a breaking down of the nervous tissue. It 
is from the study of these cases that most of the evidence for the 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 213 

location of the various centers has been derived. Such persons 
are said to have aphasia. There are three general types of this 
abnormality. These are: Motor, sensory, and total aphasia. 

Motor Aphasia. Motor aphasia is the term usually applied 
to those cases where the expression side of language is defective, 
while sensory aphasia covers those cases in which the receptive 
side of language is disarranged. Motor aphasia divides itself 
into the cortical and sub-cortical types. In cortical motor 
aphasia internal speech is lacking. It is the opinion of Collins 
that in cases of this kind the center in which there is a lesion is 
the kinaesthetic memory center. A subject of this sort can see 
perfectly so far as the eye, optic nerve, and primary visual center 
are concerned. Such a person sees letters and words perfectly 
and there is no paralysis of the tongue, lips, and other vocal 
parts. These organs are able to function in every way except in 
those coordinations which make for speech. It is often true 
that such subjects are able to say a few words like "yes" and 
''no" and other conventional phrases. These are often used as 
a kind of echo. Such speech may show itself when the patient 
begins recovery. Sometimes this type of aphasia is accompanied 
by a loss only of abihty to use substantives, and in still fewer 
cases in the loss of ability to use verbs. Other cases are on record 
where there is total loss of speech except that the ability to count 
or repeat the multiplication table remains. In most instances 
such persons have difficulty in reading to themselves. In other 
cases the person is unable to read aloud. Collins gives the follow- 
ing stenographic report of a patient suffering from aphasia of 
this kind attempting to read a newspaper: 

Lead pipe his mande hen of powerful presses. This medi in operation be- 
fore he invented the lead pipe places- press- the lead pipe no-they was about 
every s-sway-lead was cuts in pieces of the length of foot or two, which were 
the roller-which want, then rolled between row and rollers into lengths of 
to-of about ten feets. 

The inability of this patient to read was probably due to the 
fact that he was accustomed in his normal state to use the articu- 



214 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

latory memory center for interpreting the visual impressions, 
and, since the disease is of such a nature that this center is 
partly destroyed, he was unable to read. 

In subcortical aphasia there is lack of ability to speak. In 
cases of this type the stimulus is received in the primary visual 
center and the processes of interpretation take place in the usual 
manner. The motor stimulus starts on its way to the various 
speech organs, but it is intercepted by some kind of lesion. 
From this description it is evident that silent reading can take 
place, because this type of reading does not involve the vocal 
apparatus in the same way as oral reading. 

Sensory Aphasia. Sensory aphasia has reference to defects 
in that part of the language zone which is concerned with the 
receptive phases of language ability. Patients suffering from it 
have perfect sense-organs, and the centers which are stimulated 
by the auditory nerve or the optic nerve are intact. The diffi- 
culty seems to lie in the memory centers for auditory and visual 
experiences. One fundamental difference, in the two types of 
aphasia is that the sensory form is due to a lesion in the back 
part of the zone. It is also true that motor aphasia develops 
quickly and is usually accompanied by paralysis of some por- 
tion of the body. On the other hand, sensory aphasia develops 
very slowly as the result of a tumor or some disease of the 
brain tissue. Many cases of sensory aphasia are accompanied 
by loquaciousness. This means that the muscles of articulation 
are in perfect working order, but there is nothing to govern such 
movements and give them meaning. In many cases this loqua- 
ciousness is gradually reduced until the person becomes mute. 
In other cases there is inability to use the proper words. Words 
of exactly opposite meaning may be interchanged. There are 
two forms of sensory aphasia. These are auditory and visual. 
The first results in word deafness, while the second takes the 
form of word blindness. These defects are not due to any defects 
in the sensory apparatus, but rather to the fact that the inter- 
pretative processes do not function properly. A person suffering 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 215 

from word deafness hears the voice of the other person speaking 
but gets no meaning from the sound. The experience must be 
similar to that of Hstening to a language with which one is not 
familiar and cannot understand. Sounds, other than language 
sounds, may be heard and properly interpreted. In cases of this 
type, internal reading is disarranged because much of the mean- 
ing which attaches to reading grows out of auditory memory; 
and when this is eliminated or disarranged, the meaning given 
is limited. The speaking of such persons is usually accompanied 
by the misplacing of words. This is due, doubtless, to the fact 
that the auditory center has much to do with the control of 
speech. 

Word blindness means that there is inability to get meaning 
from words although they can be seen perfectly. Here, again, 
the sensory apparatus is perfect, but there is inability to inter- 
pret the symbols seen. The experience of the reader is similar 
to that of one who looks at a page of printing in a language with 
which he is not familiar. The technical name given to this type 
of defect is alexia. Some subjects may be unable to read words, 
and yet they may know letters even when they are unable to 
join them into syllables. In certain cases where the auditory 
centers are perfect and the reader has ability to recognize letters, 
he can read in a laborious manner by spelling the words aloud. 

The discovery of the knowledge of letters on the part of those 
who were word blind had at one time a decided influence upon 
the teaching of reading. It was used as an argument for the 
alphabet method, because it seemed to indicate that the knowl- 
edge of letters was fundamental to the knowledge of words. 
This view has been discarded, and such facts are now considered 
as a result of the child's having been drilled on the alphabet 
before any words were taught. The effect of such a method is 
that the letters are more firmly fixed than are words; and as a 
result they are retained longer than words, when the nervous 
system begins to break down. It would be very interesting to 
know what would happen in the case of a person who has been 



216 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

taught to read by the word or sentence method. It is the opinion 
of ColHns that bhndness for letters and words would occur 
together. 

Another fact concerning the abnormal defects in reading abil- 
ity is seen in the recovery of such afflicted persons. They always 
have to relearn reading. In the methods reported by Collins 
the first step is to get a perspective or outline of the word. This 
is followed by a knowledge of the syllables which constitute the 
word and finally the letters which enter into the word are 
learned. In this process of re-education, certain persons gain 
the ability to read a few words at a time. After this they can 
proceed no further until they have a rest period. This seems to 
be due to a lack of excitability in the nerves concerned. An- 
other point is that persons suffering from word blindness can 
sometimes read by tracing out the words with their fingers. 

One particular type of word blindness is known as psychic 
blindness. In this case letters are interpreted as letters and 
words as words, but there is no memory of the recognition. 
This means that no trace of the interpretation is registered in the 
nervous system. The words may even be presented a second or 
third time, and the subject will not detect that he is dealing with 
material which he has seen immediately before. 

Certain cases of word blindness have been considered by 
authorities as being congenital. In many instances children 
who are so classified come from families in which other members 
have the same defect. Children of this type either cannot learn 
to read or have very great difficulty in learning to do so. It is 
usually thought that they have inherited some defect of the 
brain which makes this type of learning either impossible or 
very difficult. Such children are many times perfectly normal 
in every other respect and are able to learn any other school 
subject in so far as these subjects can be learned without read- 
ing. The study of such cases has been most often made from 
the medical standpoint. It is highly important that defects of 
this type be studied from the psychological standpoint in order 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 217 

that various methods of training may be developed. It is 
possible that specialized forms of drill might serve to reduce the 
results of any hereditary defects which exist in the nervous 
system. 

In conclusion, the study of the abnormal types has shown the 
relations which exist between the various phases of the language 
experiences from the nervous standpoint. These cases show 
clearly that every aspect of language experience is necessary in 
the reading activity, and that if one phase is eliminated either 
partially or entirely by a lesion in the nervous system the reading 
process either breaks down entirely or is hindered in a very large 
degree. 

While it is true that reading is more than these physiological 
processes would indicate, yet the teacher of reading should real- 
ize that the intellectual phases or the emotional effects of her 
subject are correlated with a nervous mechanism. From this 
standpoint her problem is to produce changes in the nervous 
systems of the children whom she teaches. In so far as such 
changes are the results which she desires, her problem is objec- 
tive and materialistic. She is confronted with a material 
nervous system which must be changed. But matter is inert 
and resists such changes. Therefore, the results of her teaching 
are obtained slowly and only after careful and painstaking work. 
If the results of teaching are thought of only in mental terms, 
they lack definiteness. Such a conception of the reading process 
makes the teacher impatient for results and gives to her work a 
lack of thoroughness because she does not see in objective terms 
the necessity for long drills. On the other hand, if she realizes 
that an immediate and fundamental effect of her teaching is 
certain changes wrought in the nervous systems of those whom 
she teaches, the value of patient and painstaking work is made 
clear, because changes in matter always require time. The fore- 
going is not intended to minimize the mental phases of reading, 
but to bring more clearly before the teacher of reading the fact 
that her problems have their nervous basis. 



218 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Association between Letters 

The remaining part of the chapter will concern itself with 
the way in which the general laws of association function in 
relating various language units. The relations between letters 
will be considered first. The various characters in the alphabet 
are entirely unrelated and disconnected, except as the use of 
them tends to fix certain combinations in the minds of those 
who come in contact with language forms. The methods by 
which such associations are built up and the effect which they 
have upon the reading habit are of very great importance to all 
teachers. Such relations have been discussed in some detail 
by Huey (7) as follows: 

If the visual "a" has most often had "x" appearing at its right, the sight 
of "a" will, other things being equcil, tend to arouse the visual representa- 
tion of "x," and the sound of "a" aroused by association with its optical 
form will tend to arouse the sound of "x" preferably. Of course, the optical 
form and sound "a" have been associated with many other letters, and the 
associative tracts representing these will also be aroused more or less. The 
associative tracts representing "z" and "q" letters seldom given with "a" 
will scarcely be aroused at all. Now if the word "ax " is suddenly exposed or 
appears in reading, the sounds corresponding to "a" and "x" will at once 
come up as the most inveterate associates with these optical forms. But the 
optical form "a" will call up also its preferred associate "x " with a strength- 
ening of the optical and auditory "a" by "x" also in proportion as "a" has 
more or less often preceded it as compared with a probably preferred "e" 
'(in suffixes, etc.). Perhaps the association of optical forms from right to 
left may be as facile as that from left to right if we accept the apparent fact 
that the eye receives no data during its movement forward. 

In longer words such as "shpper " "s" may subarouse the forms and sounds 
of various other letters than "1," though the association to "1" is facile as 
compared, for example, with that to "x"; "1" has more or less frequently 
been associated with " i " following, and tends somewhat of itself to call it 
up as compared for instance with calling up "x." But the combination 
"si" has far more frequently been given with "i" than has "1" when "1" has 
stood alone, and thus the effect of "s" preceding "1" is much to facilitate 
arousal of tracts representing "1." The combination "sU" tends to arouse 
comparatively few letters, such as "p," "t," "c," "m," "d, " etc., and the 
trend of association is more and more constrained as less of the word remains. 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 219 

The combination "nigh" for example would almost invariably arouse "t," 
its almost invariable associate. In general, it only requires a direct applica- 
tion of fundamental principles of association to justify the statement, con- 
firmed, however, by its agreement with the facts of observation, that letters 
have more or less preferred associates according to their habitual arrange- 
ments into words in a given language, and that letters presented in these 
preferred sequences mutually strengthen the visual and auditory perceptions 
of each other, and thus arouse the apperceptive complex representing the 
visual form of the word and its sound. When letters in nonsense arrange- 
ment are exposed, subjects often state that they have clearly seen many more 
than they can repeat to the experimenter. The letters as optical forms 
tended to call up their preferred letter-associates, but these rather hindered 
than helped the perception of the adjoining letters, and there could be no 
apperceptive knitting together into a complex which could be remembered. 

The various rules of spelling along with their exceptions also 
develop the type of association under consideration. Again, 
there are many points in the teaching of phonics which result 
in the same kind of relations. The teacher of reading is inter- 
ested in all such rules and principles, because, if these associa- 
tions are formed, they will be an aid in the recognition of words. 
Not only are there these relations between letters, but similar 
connections are built up between syllables. These connections 
are emphasized in phonics when families of words are taught. 
Such associations, when well established, also aid in the recog- 
nition of words. 

It is clear that the associations which have been emphasized 
as existing between letters result in a knowledge of words which 
is analytic in its character. It is detailed in nature, and makes 
for accuracy in recognition. This method of dealing with words 
is made necessary by the fact that the number of letters is small 
and that their combinations into words are many. As a result, 
many words are alike in form, and detailed knowledge of them 
is necessary for rapid and accurate recognition. These asso- 
ciations also place the work of the child upon a different plane 
from that upon which it exists when training in analysis first 
begins. The first analysis is usually carried on letter by letter. 
This is a tedious and slow process and can have but few prin- 



220 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

ciples of laws underlying it. However, after the child has 
become accustomed to language forms and understands syllabi- 
cation, his analysis of words is upon a much higher plane. 
Such work is relatively rapid, and can be based upon those laws 
and principles which are to be found in phonics or spelling. 
The type of association under consideration may also be of aid 
in the recognition of words which are unfamiliar. Certain 
units of letters can be recognized and the word built up from 
these units rather than from the individual letters. A person 
who can deal with words by means of units composed of two or 
more letters instead of individual letters may also be able to 
anticipate in a measure a word with which he is dealing. Such 
anticipations may at first lead to wrong interpretations, but as 
experience is gained the result will be more rapid work. 

Association between the Larger Units of Language 

Another form of association to be considered is that which 
exists between words and other larger units of language. This 
may be spoken of as the "feel" for language. It represents a 
definite stage in the learning of a new language. At first a 
strange language is used by an adult either in a purely logical 
manner, or as a matter of imitation. However, if the person 
persists in the use of such a language, there comes finally a 
freedom in its use which is usually explained by saying that a 
feeling for the language has been developed. 

In his chapter on the Stream of Thought, James (9) emphasizes 
the fact that in all thought there are certain resting places and 
other places of movement or flight. The first he speaks of as 
"substantive parts," and the second as "transitive parts." 
The object of all thought, then, is to get from one substantive 
part to another, and this movement is accomplished by means 
of the transitive parts. To James those transitive parts exist 
as feelings of relation. In this connection, he says: 

There is not a conjunction or a preposition, and hardly an adverbial 
phrase, syntactic forms or inflection of voice, in human speech, that does not 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 221 

express some shading or other of relation which we at some moment vitally 
feel to exist between the larger objects of our thought. . . . We ought to 
say a feehng of and, a feeling of if, a feeling of but, and a feeling of hy, quite 
as readily as to say a feeling of blue or a feeling of cold. 

Another important point brought out by James is concerned 
with "feelings of tendency." The idea here is that many 
portions of speech are signs of direction in thought. To il- 
lustrate, suppose the expression "naught but" or "never- 
theless," or "however" occurs in a passage being read. In such 
cases there conies immediately a sense of the direction in which 
the thought is to proceed. 

The same idea is expressed by James when he discusses the 
intention of saying a thing before it is said. A good illustration 
of this view of the problem is seen in one's ability to read aloud 
a selection for the first time and yet be able to emphasize the 
words correctly. Such a fact must be accounted for largely 
in terms of intention, as whenever "no more" is used "than" 
is expected to follow. 

If one attempts an extemporaneous speech, it exists at first 
only as an intention to say so and so; but as the speech pro- 
ceeds, one part of the speech calls for another, and one sentence 
calls for another until the speech is complete. In delivering 
such a speech it often happens that a word gets in too soon. 
This can only mean that the word existed in a nascent form and 
that for some reason it got into the train of thought ahead of its 
regular place. Another illustration of the same point is the 
fact that words seem to cling together in groups or vocabularies. 
If a sentence is started in French, the French words continue 
to come; or if the sentence is started in Spanish, it is finished 
in Spanish. There is but slight tendency to mix up vocabularies. 

In this connection Huey (8) speaks in one of his experiments 
of "feelings of expectancy, curiosity, strain and forward push" 
which were reported by his subjects. 

Wundt (14) has emphasized the fact that any sentence begins 
with a total meaning or a total idea. In the case of the child or 



222 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

aboriginal man, this total idea takes the language form of a 
single word, but later development either in the individual or 
in the race breaks this total idea up into various parts of speech. 

The value of the ability to anticipate with some degree of 
accuracy the meaning which is to come in a passage as a phase 
of reading cannot be overemphasized. It is analytical in its 
nature and involves the details of language. It probably aids 
very materially in increasing the span of perception, and as a 
result the rate of reading is augmented. If a person reads a 
part of a sentence and is able to anticipate the remaining por- 
tions of the thought in an accurate way, interpretation must be 
on a higher plane than if the same person found it necessary 
to examine each of the remaining words in the sentence being 
read. This makes out of reading a kind of scientific guessing 
and allows the reader to move forward with fewer cues than 
would otherwise be necessary. In the early experiences of 
children such procedure seems impossible, and the first attempts 
at such are doubtless only partially successful; but as experi- 
ence is gained, these unsuccessful attempts decrease. 

It is unfortunate that there are no studies based upon chil- 
dren's reading which emphasize the development of ability to 
anticipate meaning. The early reading of the child is reading 
word by word. The efhcient teacher begins, almost immedi- 
ately, training which is intended to give the pupil the ability 
to deal with larger units. As soon as the child can successfully 
interpret the larger units of language, he is ready to enter upon 
a new phase of his reading. The changes in the reading ability 
of children which result from this reaching forward for meaning 
should be better understood. If the beginnings of this reaching 
forward for meaning are shown in the third or fourth grade, as 
they probably are, it may explain many of the erratic results 
which are obtained from the reading of these grades. During 
this transition period it seems that the child is able to use the 
anticipatory method of interpretation in dealing with certain 
selections, while other passages are of such a nature that the new 



ASSOCIATIONS IN THE READING ACT 223 

method cannot be employed and as a result he must revert to 
interpretation based upon small units. 

It is this ability to anticipate meaning which allows certain 
children to read very rapidly or to use the process of skimming 
to advantage. Such readers get the topic sentence of a para- 
graph and their knowledge of the author's views and of the topic 
at hand allows them to anticipate the remaining portions of the 
paragraph. 

Instruction which has to do with the anticipation of meaning 
has received very little attention from the standpoint of reading. 
It is true that some work which bears upon this problem has 
been done in grammar and other language studies, but it is 
very doubtful whether the child ever transfers this training to 
his reading. Instruction of this type should have a definite 
place in the teaching of reading. Most persons who develop 
this method of dealing with language have acquired it in a 
random and unorganized manner. Its importance is sufficiently 
great to give it a very definite place in the reading curriculum. 
Turner (13) has emphasized certain phases of instruction in 
reading which may be mentioned in this connection. Her work 
includes, among other topics, studies in the relative value of 
words, groups of words, connectives, etc. In all cases the 
emphasis is upon the finer and more detailed shades of meaning, 
which is essential if the ability to anticipate meaning is to be 
developed. Such work cannot fail to give the pupil a better 
appreciation of meaning, and will probably do as much towards 
increasing efficiency in reading in the upper grades as any other 
type of work. 

Two tests which have for their purpose the measurement of 
language ability will be discussed. The first of these is by 
Trabue (12). This test is known as a completion test. It 
presents to the subject a story with words omitted. The 
problem is to supply the correct words in the blank spaces. 
The author of this test does not state definitely what type or 
types of ability it measures, but evidently it involves language 



224 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

relations and vocabulary. Results have shown that there is a 
high correlation between the results of this test smd certain 
reading tests. The second test to be mentioned has been 
devised by Green (6). This test has in it a number of dis- 
arranged sentences. The problem is to rearrange the words so 
that they form sentences with meaning. The author is of the 
opinion that the test is useful in detecting the ability funda- 
mental to composition work. 

To summarize, association in reading involves four different 
problems, as follows: (i) The relation which exists between 
oral and printed language forms and their meaning; (2) the 
nervous basis for association; (3) the association between letters 
as they are found in words, and (4) associations between larger 
units of language. All of these have a part in reading ability, 
and will be spoken of in terms of language ability from this 
time forward rather than in terms of association. 



CHAPTER XIII 

IMAGERY AND APPERCEPTION AS INVOLVED IN THE 
READING PROCESS 

The next type of mental activity to be treated is imagery. 
There are two phases of this process as it relates to reading 
which should be kept in mind. First, it may refer to results 
obtained by means of reading. To illustrate, a teacher may be 
interested in having children form a correct and definite image 
of the setting for the poem Snow Bound. Again, the history 
teacher is often concerned with getting children to visualize 
historic events, or the geography teacher may find it desirable 
to strive for a clear mental picture of certain geographical de- 
tails. This phase of imagery is highly important, but it is a 
result of reading, rather than a part of the reading act. There- 
fore it will not be considered further. Second, imagery refers 
to a type of mental stuff which accompanies or forms part of 
the reading activity. From this standpoint imagery represents 
an intermediate step between sensation and final interpretation. 
This means that often there is no immediate and direct route 
from sensation to meaning. When interpretation takes place 
in this indirect way, the image plays a prominent part. The 
problem at hand is to give briefly something of the nature of 
imagery and the place which it occupies in the reading process. 

The Nature of Imagery. The imagery which is involved in 
the reading process may be of many different varieties. In 
fact, there may be as many classes as there are different senses. 
The types most often considered are the visual, auditory, motor, 
and kinaesthetic. Without doubt many persons use all of these 
types and change from one to the other very rapidly. This 
means that if visual imagery accompanies the reading process, 

225 



226 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

there is a series of mental pictures either of the objects referred 
to by the words or of the words themselves. Again, if auditory 
imagery accompanies the reading, the words are heard or certain 
other sounds come into the mental activity. The same general 
law holds for each type of imagery. Huey (7) brings out the 
relation of imagery to other phases of reading in the following 
words: 

Provisionally and roughly, I should say that in reading there were two 
sets of processes, somewhat independent and paralleling each other: (i) 
A reading in terms of interassociated word and phrase units (themselves 
composed of interassociated sub-units), thought in a variously proportioned 
combination of visual, auditory, and motor elements; (2) a reading (or in- 
terpretation) in terms of direct representations of the realities with which the 
subject ma ter deals; a picturing in sense terms of what the words symbolize. 

The relative prominence of the two processes varies greatly with the indi- 
vidual, and, of course, with the subject matter as well. The first is the con- 
stant process, is the major part of the performance for most readers; is the 
part which makes the heavy draft on the psychological machinery in the 
fatiguing and delaying process. It is the ding an sich for the average 
reader. 

The second process is a sort of dramatization in which the reader sees and 
hears and smells and tastes, and takes a part. Consciousness may almost 
desert the first process in its interest in the scenery of the second; yet this 
scenery is constantly being changed by the word- workers behind; and it 
may be jarred to confusion by a w-ong arrangement of word or phrase. 

Another important phase of this question is the part which 
verbal imagery plays in mental life. It is well known that many 
persons make use of this type of imagery. It is a method which 
deals with language without careful and accurate evaluation. 
Such methods may be illustrated by the mathematician who is 
continually dealing with symbols. He performs many different 
operations with these symbols without thinking of their usual 
meaning, and in many cases it might even be difficult for him 
to give an accurate evaluation of them. He may develop an 
entire system of symbols covering many pages, and then repre- 
sent this system by some new symbol, say X. This X may now 
be introduced into other systems without the mathematician's 



IMAGERY AND APPERCEPTION 227 

having to think of its usual meaning. Most of the work done 
in mathematics is on this plane. So it is with language; the 
reader is able to use a large number of words without thinking, 
in each particular case, of their exact meaning. It is clear that 
only trained and experienced mathematicians can use the plan 
outlined above in a satisfactory way. A first-year algebra 
student could not employ such procedure without disastrous 
results. By the same token, only the experienced reader can 
use the verbal method of dealing with words. Language is 
exacting in its demands, and anyone who attempts abbreviated 
methods of dealing with it must have broad experiences or else 
pay the penalty. 

The Value of Imagery. With respect to the general problem 
involved here, there are two rather distinct theories. Some 
authorities hold that imagery is not necessary and that the read- 
ing activity can proceed without it. Again, there are those who 
hold that some form of imagery is necessary. Huey's (8) results 
show a dearth of imagery for prepositions, conjunctions, and 
other relational words. Such results indicate that, in certain 
phases of the interpretative processes of reading, imagery 
plays only a small part. Goldscheider and Miiller (5) in their 
work upon perception emphasize the value of auditory imagery, 
and Zeitler (15) in his work upon the same general problem 
places much value upon visual imagery. If space permitted, 
many other authorities might be cited upon this problem. The 
net result of such a survey would be, on the one hand, a series 
of arguments based largely upon introspection setting forth 
very strongly the theory that some form of imagery is necessary 
in all mental activity and therefore in reading, and on the other 
hand, another series of arguments which set forth just as strongly 
that imagery is not a necessary factor in mental activity. In 
view of this fact, the value of imagery is in doubt. It may be 
possible that the two opposite opinions as just set forth represent 
individual differences and that for certain persons imagery is 
necessary and for others it is not. It seems safe, however, to 



228 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

say that the part which imagery plays in mental life has been 
overestimated. It is probably true that most persons use some 
imagery, but it is exceedingly doubtful, except in rare cases, that 
a complex and highly organized system of imagery is required. 
In addition to this, many authorities are of the opinion that 
imagery does not play a fundamental part in mental activity, 
but rather a secondary part. In other words the image serves 
only to center or focus attention, whereas the meaning is much 
more fundamental. 

Just how large a part it plays in the reading activity of children 
is not well known. Huey is of the opinion that it plays a much 
larger part with children than with adults. If Huey is correct 
in this statement, it is interesting to speculate as to its probable 
effect. If he means that the imagery of the child is complete 
and full, then it is easy to see how there might be a retarding 
influence upon the rate of reading. This would mean that if the 
child came to the word "house," the image produced must be 
complete and accurate in details in every respect. If such 
imagery should accompany most of the words read, it would 
doubtless render the process of reading so cumbersome as to 
hinder both rate and interpretation. On the other hand, if Huey 
meant to convey the idea that the child's imagery is concrete 
rather than verbal, then there need be no hindrance of the read- 
ing process, for it is well known that concrete imagery may be 
so much abbreviated that it would not stand in the way of a very 
rapid rate. If adequate means were at hand for studying the 
problem, both types of children would doubtless be found. It 
is an important problem which needs further study. 

Imagery has had little or no attention paid to it in its connec- 
tion with reading. The child is allowed to develop and employ 
imagery in his own way. This is due to the fact that it is very 
subtle in its nature and therefore exceedingly hard to deal with 
in the case of children. It may be that certain pupils develop a 
system of imagery which is complex and which retards and holds 
back their reading process. A teacher of deaf and dumb children 



IMAGERY AND APPERCEPTION 229 

recently made the statement to the writer that many children 
of this type who learned the sign language first were always slow 
readers. It was his opinion that this was true because the sign 
language carried with it a cumbersome and complex type of 
imagery. If this statement be true in regard to deaf and dumb 
children, it is not impossible that the reading of some pupils who 
use oral speech is accompanied by imagery which is too clumsy 
and cumxbersome to allow efiicient interpretation. It may also 
be true that certain other children develop an abbreviated 
system of imagery too rapidly, and as a result fail to get mean- 
ing from what they read. This might be true of children who 
are required to eliminate lip movements too rapidly. 

Another difficulty which attaches to this problem as it relates 
to children is the absence of standardized tests for this type of 
mental activity. This fact, along with other points previously 
mentioned, makes the control of imagery as it relates to reading 
seem a hopeless task at the present time. 

The discussion may be concluded as follows: (i) Imagery 
is present in the reading of most persons. (2) A few persons 
are probably able to arrive at meaning without imagery. (3) 
Many different views as to its value are held. (4) No means for 
the control of it in the reading process has been developed. 

Apperceptive Factors in Reading 

Under this heading are to be discussed briefly certain subjective 
factors which determine or help to determine interpretation. 
It is usually conceded that new ideas entering the mind come 
in contact with a certain mental set or mental system which 
determines in a large degree the interpretation to be given. 

In his work with mutilated words, Pillsbury (9) gives a list 
of eight factors which seemed to determine the meaning attached 
to the various words exposed. These are as follows: 

1. An associated word called just before the word to be read 
was shown. 

2. The preceding word in the series. 



230 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

3. An earlier suggestion (this is valid only when several 
exposures are made). 

4. A word the subject had spoken or intended to speak im- 
mediately before the exposure. 

5. Interesting events of the preceding day. 

6. The word of the preceding hour. 

7. The general disposition of the subject, which determined 
the way in which a called word of ambiguous meaning was under- 
stood and so its effect upon the reading of the word shown. 

8. The subject's knowledge that the words contained mis- 
prints. 

In Bagley's (i) work with mutilated spoken sentences, the 
following points are emphasized: 

1 . That distraction of attention militates against the complete 
apperception of the meaning of the sentence. 

2. That familiarity with a sentence sometimes militates 
against a clear and definite reference on the part of the 
observer. 

3. That the apperceptive consciousness is constantly changing 
to meet the changes in the context. 

4. That a doubt or conflict as to meaning gives rise to a feeling 
of unpleasantness. 

These studies list a number of factors which determine, in 
a measure, the meaning w^hich attaches to material as it is read. 
That the teacher should understand the influence of such 
factors and that she should be able to see their influence in the 
reading of children go without saying. 

The same general problem as it relates to errors in oral reading 
has been studied by Bawden (2). A partial list of such errors, 
along with their classification, follows immediately: 

I. Errors showing tendency to form familiar words or word- 
parts. 

Incorrect form Correct Form 

Ware-fell Well-fare 

Com, ing up Come, ring up 



. IMAGERY AND APPERCEPTION 231 

2. Errors due to similarity in sound of adjacent letters, word- 
parts or words. 

Incorrect form Corr "ct form 

It will give father a Charles It will give father a chance to 

pitch into Charles 

3. Errors due at once to persistence and to anticipation. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Fraternal rations Fraternal relations 

It is at least too early to afform It is at least too early to affirm 

that gold monometalism has 

won 

4. Ellipsis due to previous pronunciation of the same letter, 
word-part, or words. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

In raising bead In raising bread 

Truly normons Truly enormous 

5. Oral ellipsis due to anticipation of letters, word-parts, or 
words. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Chronic Chronicle political 

The chairman rose in his pace The chairman rose in place, pale, 

and agitated 

6. Oral persistent transposition. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Mile distants Miles distant 

Cheek looks Cheeks look 

7. Oral anticipatory transposition. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Fetch the box at once Fetch the box at once as she 

promised 
I say the sfear I say the fear should fall 

8. Oral persistent substitutions. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

I have kept the faith; I have kept the faith; 

I have fought the good fith I have fought the good fight 



232 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

9. Oral anticipatory substitutions of words. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Jael took her into her private Jael took him into her private 

apartments apartments 

10. Oral examples of coalescence which involve the modifica- 
tions of vowels or consonants. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

Our corkey Our turkey was cooking 

(The "o" in "corkey" was 
pronounced as in "cork") 

11. Examples of oral exchange. 

Incorrect form Correct form 

A Jog-lammed creek A log- jammed creek 

Reats are rool Roots are real 

These points have a very large place in the interpretation of 
certain errors which children make in their reading. Many 
mistakes made by them are due to the mental set or the back- 
ground of meaning with which they approach a selection. If 
two words have occurred together a number of times in the 
experience of the child, the tendency is for the first word of a 
series to call up the remaining words of the series. This may 
result in gross mispronunciations and substitutions. It is also 
true that the experience of the previous day or the preceding 
recitation period may be carried over into the reading lesson. 
In this way it might be shown that each element in the list just 
given plays a part in the errors made in reading. There seem 
to be those children who are much more susceptible to these 
apperceptive influences than others. Whether this is due to a 
fluctuation of attention or to other factors in mental activity is 
not well understood. It is a factor, however, which every teacher 
of reading should keep in mind as a means of interpreting errors. 
Mistakes of the type listed by Bawden are Often more or less 
accidental in nature and need have but little attention given to 
them. A child who makes an error like those just enumerated 
does not necessarily lack familiarity with the words miscalled. 



IMAGERY AND APPERCEPTION 233 

Such errors have been spoken of by Bawden as lapses. From this 
standpoint it is clear that such mistakes will happen only occa- 
sionally, and time spent in drilUng on the word miscalled or in 
censuring the child is time wasted. 

The discussion has also suggested one danger which may come 
from the apperceptive influences. This is inaccuracy. This 
means that the reader may place his own interpretation upon 
many passages and so become inaccurate in comprehension. 
Careful and detailed reading will, in most cases, serve as a suf3&- 
cient check upon this. 

Reading Material. The preceding pages have indicated the 
influences of certain phases of the early experiences of the child 
with respect to his reading. More generally considered, the 
term "experience" may include all the learning of the child. This 
view of the matter gets its importance from the fact that if an 
extensive background of experience is acquired by the child, 
it enlarges and enriches the meaning which attaches to any 
material read. It enables interpretation to take place more 
rapidly, and hence increases the rate of reading. It makes for 
understanding and stimulates an interest in reading. This 
means that a certain part of the material read by children should 
be -v^ithin their mental grasp, and should have a meaning which 
fits easily into their experiences. Probably the greatest single 
change that has been made in the text-books of reading is in 
this respect. The early text-book was filled with religious and 
moral passages, which had but little interest for children because 
of the absence of experiences which serve as a basis for the inter- 
pretation of such material. Modern readers attempt to bring 
together selections which are adapted to the child mind. 

The selection of material for the reading of children is not an 
easy task. Most teachers have given this problem little thought, 
and have had little training in evaluating and in finding proper 
material. A discussion of some phases of this problem has been 
given by Bobbitt (3). He emphasizes the fact that the child 
lives in a complicated world and should therefore come in con- 



234 THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

tact with various types of reading. The forms enumerated by 
him are as follows: (i) Material which introduces the pupil 
to occupational activities, (2) material which presents a wide 
and full revelation of human nature, (3) scientific material, (4) 
material concerned with health, physical development, sanita- 
tion, etc., (5) folk-stories, fairy stories, etc., (6) historical ma- 
terial. 

It should be pointed out that each of these types of material 
may exist on various levels. This means that if science is to be 
understood by a fourth grade boy, it must be in a different form 
from material of this type which would be of interest to a high 
school boy. 

In conclusion, the law of apperception seems to apply to the 
reading process in at least three ways: (i) It gives certain facts 
as to the mental set, which determines in a measure the interpre- 
tation to be made; (2) it determines certain types of errors which 
occur in reading; (3) it determines the amount and degree of 
interest in various types of reading material. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ATTENTION, REASONING, AND COMPREHENSION IN THEIR 
RELATION TO READING ABILITY; DIAGNOSIS FROM 
THE STANDPOINT OF THE HIGHER MENTAL ACTIVITIES 

This chapter will concern itself first -with attention. General 
psychology has stressed two laws of attention which are ap- 
plicable in this connection. One of these states that most, if not 
all, mental activity involves effort. Reading is an activity, 
a process which goes on. The continuation of this process 
for any period of time means that energy has been consumed 
and that effort has been put forth. It is w^ell know^n that there 
are many conditions under which reading is done where the 
conscious effort required is very small, and that there are other 
circimistances w^here the conscious effort must be very great if 
it is to accomplish its purpose. For most pupils the type of 
reading material and the purpose of the reading will determine 
the amount of effort which is required. There are, on the other 
hand, certain pupils all of whose reading is done with a degree 
of effort which is not requisite for the purpose to be accom- 
pHshed. It is highly probable that many children, as well as 
adults, might place their reading on a higher level by a slight 
increase in the amount of effort which they exert. 

It would be exceedingly interesting to know the factors which 
determine the level of effort upon which the reading of a pupil 
proceeds. A few readers have been found who expressed great 
surprise at being able to increase the efficiency of their reading 
by means of a little extra effort. 

One value of speed tests in reading lies in the fact that they 
give the "feel" of different levels of the reading activity. In 
this way children learn what reading means in terms of energy 
put forth. It is highly probable that such exercises do much 

235 



236 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

in helping to pitch the reading of a pupil upon the proper level 
of effort. It is not argued that all the reading of a child should 
be done under great stress and strain, but rather that there is 
a certain economical level upon which the reading of every 
pupil should be placed. This, of course, is an individual matter 
and it is the business of the teacher to help each pupil find his 
most economical level. 

The second law of attention has reference to the focus and 
margin of mental activity. According to some psychologists, 
this gives rise to a state of clearness with respect to certain parts 
of the mental field, while other parts are much less clear. 

An extreme form to which this mental state may lead is shown 
in the reading of a page after which not a single word is remem- 
bered. In such cases the focus of the mental activity of the 
reader is not concerned with the material read. This type of 
attention may occur in the reading of most persons at certain 
times and under certain conditions, but it does not represent 
a fixed habit of reading for a normal person. 

A second type of attention is to be seen in reading where 
there are many fluctuations. The matter to be read remains 
in the focus for only a short time. There is then a shifting to 
some unrelated topic or event, and the reading lapses into the 
form described above This may continue for only a few words 
or for a few lines. There is then a shifting back to the reading 
material. Such a procedure means that connections are lost 
and little or no meaning obtained. If anything is accomplished, 
the reader must go back and reread what he has gone over. 
Such seems to be the habitual type of reading for many children. 
It is usually described as careless and indifferent. It probably 
grows out of a general mental lassitude or indifference toward 
the material read. It is certainly a wasteful method, and every 
means should be used to eliminate it before it becomes firmly 
fixed as a habit of work. 

A third type of attention may be described as one in which 
there are few fluctuations and in which the amount of effort is 



ATTENTION AND REASONING 237 

small. The reader gets the meaning, but there is no great ex- 
penditure of mental energy. This type is well illustrated by 
reading for pleasure. In reading of this kind the context is 
often such that comprehension can proceed readily and easily. 
The interest involved is immediate, and the reader is conscious 
of little effort. 

A fourth type is represented in that reading in which there 
are few fluctuations, or if there are fluctuations they are so 
short in duration that little if anything in the way of meaning 
is lost. This level is carried on under considerable mental 
strain and effort, and is well illustrated by the reading which we 
designate as study. 

A fifth level is to be seen in the reader who is so thoroughly 
concentrated upon the material which he is reading that he may 
not hear anything which goes on around him. The fluctuations 
of attention are reduced to a minimum, and the large effort 
which is exerted is shown by the general contraction of the body, 
and the changes which take place in breathing and circulation 
after the passage or selection is finished. 

The problems of attention represent another phase of the 
reading process for which methods of control have not been 
developed. Skillful teachers may be able to deal with it in 
particular cases. 

Reasoning as a Phase of Reading Ability 

The only study upon this mental process which is of interest 
at this time is that by Thorndike (ii). This author emphasizes 
the fact that correct reading requires (i) that each word produce 
a correct meaning, (2) that each such element of meaning be 
given a correct weight in comparison with the others, and (3) 
that the resulting ideas be examined and validated to make 
sure that they satisfy the mental set or adjustment or purpose 
for whose sake the reading was done. 

From a consideration of the above mentioned requisites it 
is seen that reading has three elements which relate it very 



238 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

closely to reason. First, it is reasoning in the sense that there 
is always a problem to be solved. Second, there is meaning 
which comes from single words or groups of words. Such a 
step is largely on the level of perception and provides the ideas 
which serve as a basis for the reasoning. Third, there must be 
an evaluation of these meanings. This means that they must 
first be accepted in a provisional way, and then weighed and 
balanced in the light of the purpose. If a word is given too 
little weight or too great weight, the meaning which is given 
to the passage will be wrong. 

The reading which Thorndike is discussing is not reading in 
the high school or college, but reading wherever it may be 
found. The child who is just beginning to read is confronted 
by this reasoning element. It is this fact which lends much 
to the difficulty of reading and is e\ddently one reason why 
certain children master it very slowly. From this standpoint, 
reading becomes one of the highest forms of mental activity, 
and the successful teacher must keep this fact in mind in all her 
work. 

Comprehension as Involved in Reading 

The term " comprehension," along with its synonym inter- 
pretation.j has been used thus far in the discussions with little 
or no attempt to give definite meaning to it. It is now the 
purpose to give a brief discussion of these processes. This 
will be included under three general heads, as follows: (i) the 
conditions which make for a rapid and efficient interpretation, 
(2) types of comprehension, and (3) the nature of meaning. 

Conditions Which Determine Interpretation. The discussion 
in preceding chapters has already suggested the solution of the 
problem involved in this topic. Comprehension, if it is to be 
efficient, requires a wide span of perception and the ability to 
observe. It also requires that many different motor coordina- 
tions be well established, and that there be familiarity with 
language relations. Again, there must be a rich background of 



ATTENTION AND REASONING 239 

experience, an abbreviated system of imagery, as well as the 
ability to attend to and to evaluate ideas properly. The fore- 
going represents the conditions which are required if the process 
of interpretation is to take place. Such an enumeration of 
factors represents the situation after the process of reading is 
well established, not the conditions which exist the first time 
the child undertakes to read. 

Not a few authors have recently placed emphasis upon train- 
ing in comprehension, yet few, if any, directions are given for 
conducting such training. It is probable that these writers 
have in mind certain of the conditions already mentioned, 
especially those which have to do with language forms and lan- 
guage relations. This may be thought of as an indirect attack 
upon the problem and is probably the only feasible one. 

Types of Comprehension. This topic is meant to call atten- 
tion to the fact that comprehension is not all of the same kind. 
The type of comprehension which is involved in the interpre- 
tation of a passage depends, to a certain extent, upon the aim 
of the reading. If the aim is pleasure, the comprehension is 
different from that in w^hich the aim is one of reproduction or 
answering questions. From this standpoint, it is doubtless 
true that there are as many different kinds and levels of com- 
prehension as there are purposes and aims in reading. A very 
general classification gives three types of comprehension. The 
first of these may be thought of as intellectual in nature, the 
second as involving action, and the third as appreciation. 

The comprehension referred to thus far has been for the most 
part intellectual in nature. In reading of this type it is facts 
and their relations which are desired. Comprehension of this 
type is of such a nature that it can be conveyed to others with 
considerable success. Our language is composed largely of 
words which allow the communication of experiences of this 
kind. There is some evidence that this type of comprehension 
divides itself into various specialized forms. Comprehension 
from the standpoint of answering questions is different from 



240 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

comprehension based upon reproduction or outlining or other 
types of reactions required by the school. The practical prob- 
lem in this connection is concerned with the training which 
should be involved in these different types of comprehension. 
At present the school gives a general type of training in reading 
and expects this to suffice in all kinds of reading. It seems 
that the later training in reading should become more special- 
ized, and that different t3q3es of reading should be taught. 

A good example of comprehension which is on the plane of 
action is the direction test. Here the comprehension is shown 
by certain simple acts. In school work, assignments are of the 
same general type. The comprehension of the pupil is shown 
by what he does. This is an important type of comprehension 
which is probably used too little in school work. 

Comprehension as appreciation may be divided into two 
general classes. First, there is appreciation which is attached 
to the reading of a poem or other form of literature; and second, 
there is appreciation which comes from the understanding of 
a general situation. An example of the second t5^e is the 
appreciation which may be aroused in the child's mind from a 
correct understanding of the hardships of our forefathers. 
Both types are highly important and should be emphasized in 
school work. 

Comprehension as appreciation has in it an emotional ele- 
ment. It is an individual experience. The very fact that it is 
individual in character means that it cannot be conveyed to 
others with great success. This fact makes the appreciation 
lesson difficult to teach, because there are no adequate checks 
for the results. Sometimes oral reading is taken as a check, 
but it is often true that the child may read well orally, while in 
reality he has not appreciated the selection read. This makes 
it very difficult for the teacher to know whether she has suc- 
ceeded in teaching a selection where the comprehension is of 
the appreciation type. 

It seems clear that the laws of rate of reading do not apply 



ATTENTION AND REASONING 241 

here. Appreciation can hardly be thought of as proceeding at 
a definite rate. Appreciation cannot be hurried. If this is 
attempted, appreciation as such ceases. Comprehension of 
this type has in it certain elements of leisure. It must be 
allowed to follow the pupil's own whims and fancies. It does 
not follow general laws as they have been emphasized in other 
connections. This type of comprehension is difficult to measure. 
The points cited above give rise to this difficulty. The fact that 
no methods for measuring this type of reading have been de- 
veloped has resulted in its not being emphasized in current 
literature. Some teachers seem to be neglecting both the 
material upon which this kind of comprehension is based and 
the methods by which it is taught. There is need for a great 
deal of emphasis upon reading of this type. The methods of 
instruction present problems to the most skillful teacher and 
it is evident that a more perfect technique needs to be 
developed. 

Nature of Meaning. The difficulty in determining the nature 
of meaning Hes in the fact that, like all other phases of mental 
activity, meaning processes seldom if ever occur alone. They 
are always associated with other forms of mental activity and 
to separate them from their accompaniments is not easy. There 
are, however, certain experiences in mental activity which allow 
an analysis of the various factors which enter into them to be 
made in a way which shows the nature of meaning in a satis- 
factory way. For example, imagery is a form of mental activity 
in which such a separation may be made by those trained in in- 
trospection. Certain processes which often accompany imagery 
and which are usually considered as imagery are evidently 
meaning. This is especially true of certain phases of imagery 
which have to do with the inner speaking of words. In many 
instances some of the processes in inner speech take the form 
of feelings and motor tendencies. Such feelings and motor 
tendencies are probably highly individualistic and unanalyzable 
and evidently approach pure meaning. 



242 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Certain phases of perception also give some data as to the 
nature of meaning. A long span of perception allows a pre- 
vision or a partial interpretation, which is followed by other 
activities of a sensory or motor nature that result in full mean- 
ing. These partial interpretations can probably be best de- 
scribed as general forms of mental activity which must have 
the nature of pure meaning ; but since most meaning is attached 
to sensory experience, such as sounds of words or to motor experi- 
ences such as speaking, these pure meaning activities do not 
suffice. They must be supplemented by other experiences. 

The same kind of results is to be found in the short-exposure 
experiment. In that part of the interpretation which has been 
spoken of as the third level, there often occurs the feeling of 
what the words are like, but they can neither be imaged or 
vocalized and as a result they cannot be dealt with in any definite 
way. This feeling of what words are like is probably very 
similar to meaning in its final form. Still another similar ex- 
perience is found in the anticipatory feelings for the thought 
which is to come in a passage. These are indefinite and in- 
tangible in their nature; but as the reading of the passage pro- 
ceeds and as more sensory experiences are added, they become 
clear cut and definite ideas. 

It seems that pure meaning is approached most closely in 
those experiences in which there is in the mind every phase of 
a word except the pronunciation. In such instances the mean- 
ing as feeling or as motor tendencies is present, but this does 
not suffice. Pronunciation must be accomplished before full 
satisfaction with respect to the word is gained. These examples 
are sufiicient to show most of the characteristics of meaning. 
It apparently has in it large feeling elements. These feelings 
indicate what the word is like, how it feels to say it, and how 
it feels to sound it. Meaning also has in it large motor tenden- 
cies. These motor tendencies give a sense of direction, as is 
experienced when attempts at recalling a word lead to the 
pronunciation of the wrong word. 



ATTENTION AND REASONING 243 

Diagnosis from the Standpoint of the Higher 
Mental Activities 

The different types of the higher mental activities as dis- 
cussed include some of the most important phases of reading. 
Unfortunately there are few tests at hand for evaluating these 
types of ability as they relate to reading. Certain tests have 
been devised for dealing with language ability, but these are 
general in nature and do not attempt to analyze and evaluate 
different phases of language ability as it is involved in reading. 
Tests which give data as to the pupil's ability to deal with larger 
language units and with language relations are very much 
needed. 

In the same way there should be tests to measure reasoning 
ability in reading. Such a test would involve a careful evalua- 
tion of different words and phrases in a selection. Such an 
evaluation would need to be given in numerical units so that 
the pupils' overevaluation or underevaluation could be defi- 
nitely estimated. The difficulties which attach to any type 
of test for imagery are well understood, and the different methods 
for evaluating comprehension have already been discussed. 
It will be seen from the foregoing that the contribution of the 
various points in the chapter toward diagnosis will be of a very 
general nature. 

Questions and Exercises 

1. Have you had children in your classes who seemed to have very 
concrete and elaborate systems of imagery? If so, how did it manifest 
itself? 

2. Is there danger of the child developing verbal imagery too early? 
How could you avoid such? 

3. Have you had children who may have been word bHnd? What special 
types of training did you use in their cases? 

4. Pick out five of the selections in the reader used by your class which 
the children like best, and any five which they like less. Estimate the extent 
to which previous experiences of the children determine their Hkes and dis- 
likes. 



244 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

5. Make a list of one hundred errors in oral reading. How many of these 
are due to apperceptive influences such as the work of the previous lesson, 
material read at home, etc.? 

6. Give some standardized test in silent reading to your class and study 
the mistakes made in the results with a view of determining the influence 
of apperceptive factors. Study the same results from the standpoint of over- 
evaluation or underevaluation of particular words or phrases. 

7. Rank your children with respect to the effort which they put into their 
work. In how many cases can you assign definite reasons for lack of effort? 
In those cases where no definite reasons can be assigned is it possible to in- 
crease the effort by speed drills or other types of training? 

8. Is there any difference between the mental activities involved in the 
interpretation of the symbols (words) in reading, and the symbols which are 
used in algebra and other forms of mathematics? 

9. In what sense is reading a science of symbols? 

10. Do you have children who seem to be able to reach forward and 
anticipate meaning? If so how does this ability manifest itself? 

11. Are there those children whose chief difficulty in reading seems to be 
a lack of ability to attend to the meaning of the material read? What 
means do you use to remedy this defect? 

12. Is it necessary to take precautions in order that children may not get 
wrong meanings for words through wrong associations? Can you cite 
examples in which this has been true? 

13. When are associations sufficiently strong so that a word may be said 
to be learned? 

14. In what sense is meaning an individual matter? In what respect is it 
general? 

15. Is the meaning which a first-grade child attaches to a word necessarily 
the same as the same child will give the same word later? What will deter- 
mine the difference? 

Bibliography 

1. Bagley, W. C, The Apperception of the Spoken Sentence. Am. Jl. Psy., 

1901, 12, 80-130. 

2. Bawden, H. H., A Study of Lapses. Psy. Rev. Mon. Supp., 1900, 3, No. 

4. Pp. 122. 

3. Bobbitt, F., Reading in the Elementary Schools of Indianapolis, V and 

VI. The Reading Materials. Elem. Sch. Jl., 19, 665-688, 741-761. 

4. Collins, J., The Faculty of Speech. A Study of Aphasia. New York, 

The Macmillan Co., 1898. Pp. 427. 

5. Goldscheider, A. und Muller, E., Zur Psychologic und Pathologie des 

Lesens. Zeitsch.f. Klin. Med., 1893, 23, 131-167. 



ATTENTION AND REASONING 245 

6. Greene, H. A., Organization Test. Issued by S. A. Courtis, Detroit, 

Michigan. 

7. Huey, E. B., On the Psychology and Phj'^siology of Reading. Amer. Jl. 

of Psy., 1901, 12, 292-313. 

8. Huey, E. B., The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. New York, The 

Macmillan Co., 1907. Pp. xvi + 469. 

9. James, W., Principles of Psychology. Chicago, Henry Holt and Co., 

1890, I, pp. xii + 689. 

10. Pillsbury, W. B., A Study in Apperception. Am. Jl. of Psy., 1897, 8. 

315-393- 

11. Thorndike, E. L., Reading as Reasoning; A Study of Mistakes in Para- 

graph Reading. //. Ed. Psy., 1917, 8, 323-332. 

12. Trabue, M. R., Completion Test Language Scales. (Col. Cont. to Ed. 

No. 77.) New York, Columbia University, 1916. Pp. ix -|- 118. 

13. Turner, N. E., Teaching to Read. New York, American Book Co., 1915. 

Pp. viii + 520. 

14. Wundt, W., Volker Psychologic, Die Sprache, W. Engelmann, Leipsic. 

15. Zeitler, J., Tachistoskopische Untersuchungen iiber das Lesen. Phil. 

Stud., 1900, 16, 380-465. 



E. GENERAL SUMMARY 

CHAPTER XV 

RELATIONS EXISTING AMONG THE VARIOUS FACTORS 
WHICH ENTER INTO THE READING PROCESS 

It has been the purpose of the preceding chapters to give in 
some detail a systematic analysis of the reading activity as it 
has been revealed by scientific studies. It remains to show 
more clearly the relations which exist among the various factors 
or elements as they have been set forth. This will be done 
from six different standpoints, as follows: (i) By contrasting 
reading as a school product and reading as a process; (2) by 
discussing types of readers; (3) by pointing out certain factors 
the underdevelopment or overdevelopment of which make 
for defects in reading ability; (4) by a discussion of analysis 
and synthesis; (5) by pointing out differences between oral 
and silent reading; and (6) by contrasting the reading of adults 
and of children. 

Reading as a School Product 

It has been reiterated constantly in the preceding pages that 
reading is a process. In another sense reading is a result of the 
instruction of the school and as such it is very truly a product 
or an attainment. The teacher is often more interested in her 
subject from this standpoint than from any other. In silent 
reading, among other aims, she is concerned with developing 
in her pupils the ability to comprehend rapidly and accurately, 
while in oral reading it is a part of her problem to produce readers 
who proceed at a rate which is adapted to this kind of reading, 
who are accurate in their pronunciation of words, and who are 

246 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 247 

able to use with a greater or less degree of effectiveness certain 
elements of technique, such as inflection, pitch of voice, etc. 
These are the results or products for which she is being more 
and more held responsible, and it is here that her interest is very 
intense. If reading were a simple activity which could be ac- 
complished in the case of all pupils with equal ease in a short 
period of time, no further knowledge of this subject would be 
necessary on the part of the teacher. As a matter of fact, reading 
is highly complex. Its accomplishment in any efficient manner 
requires a considerable period of time, and the ease with which 
it is accomplished varies much from pupil to pupil. This condi- 
tion requires that if the teacher is to be intelligent about her 
work, she must have a detailed knowledge of the factors which 
enter into rate, comprehension, etc. Such a body of knowledge 
is to be found in the psychology of the various mental activities 
which are involved in the reading process. This knowledge 
gives her fundamental principles as a basis for her methods and 
enables her to vary them to meet the needs of individual pupils. 

The scientific facts concerning reading as a school product 
have been contributed almost entirely by standard tests. One 
of the fundamental reasons for the widespread interest in this 
type of work is that it has dealt with school products in a manner 
that was of immediate and direct value to the teacher. One of 
the greatest contributions which this movement has made is 
the very great interest that it has created in scientific material 
on the part of teachers in service. 

The knowledge at hand concerning the mental processes that 
underlie reading as a product was acquired, in a large measure, 
by means of laboratory methods before teachers had arrived 
at their present view of reading as a school product. These 
results were produced by men who were interested in the prob- 
lems themselves, rather than in their bearing upon the teaching 
of reading. For these reasons, much of this body of laboratory 
material lay unutilized for a period of years; but it may be 
expected that as both general and individual methods which are 



248 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

concerned with reading as a product are emphasized, teachers 
will be more interested in the processes which are fundamental 
to the act of reading. 

Fundamental Defects in Reading Ability 

An attempt will be made to summarize here deficiencies in 
reading ability, not in terms of attainment, but in a more 
fundamental way. To say that a child is a slow reader or poor 
in comprehension does not give fundamental causes; but if the 
defect can be stated in terms of the factors which determine rate 
or comprehension, then a basis is given for the solution of the 
problem. It is from this standpoint that the following discus- 
sion will proceed. 

Defects in Perception. According to the preceding discussion 
there are two fundamental phases of perception. These are the 
width of the span of perception, and the ability involved in 
making accurate observations. If a low grade of ability in each 
of these abilities is found in a pupil, poor reading ability must 
result. In instances of this type interpretation can take place 
only in small units, which makes it inefficient as to rate. In 
addition to this, there would be an absence of accuracy. This 
would grow out of lack of ability to see those details which 
determine differences in words. If a short span of perception 
is combined with a high degree of ability to observe, the result 
is a slow reader who is certain of his results. The short span of 
perception makes for slow rate, but the accurate observations 
tend toward comprehension which is qualitatively efficient. 
If a long span of perception is combined with a small degree of 
ability in observation, inaccurate reading results. Under such 
conditions the long span makes for speed, but the lack of the 
second ability produces many inaccuracies. 

Another type of defect is found in those pupils who are not 
able to use their full span in all types of reading. Cases have 
been noted where a wide span of perception was used in oral 
reading but not in silent reading, or vice versa. 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 249 

Defects in Motor Ability. Reading requires the ability to 
acquire a number of complicated motor habits. There are those 
children whose chief difficulty seems to lie on the motor side of 
reading. Their reading shows extraneous movements, and the 
breathing coordinations are not well established. There may also 
be difficulties in pronunciation and enunciation, and eye-move- 
ment records may show gross irregularities and lack of rhythm. 
In other cases the difficulty takes the form of slow reactions. 

Language Ability Lacking. Those phases of language ability 
which are involved in reading are highly complicated and may 
involve some of the highest forms of mental activity. There 
are children who seem to have great difficulty in gaining pro- 
ficiency with language. These are the children who are reported 
by the teacher as not being able to recognize words or as having 
no appreciation of phrases, clauses, or sentences. To be sure, 
nearly every test or experiment which may be tried with such 
children will show unsatisfactory conditions in reading, but the 
fundamental factor in the entire situation is a lack of the appre- 
ciation of language. Such lack of appreciation is evidenced in 
their oral reading by gross mispronunciations, by the way they 
fail to heed all punctuation marks, and by the lack of phrasing. 
In such cases, there are few objective signs that there is appre- 
ciation of the meaning. 

Lack of Ability to Attend. There are those children whose 
chief difficulty seems to lie in the effort which is put into the 
work. Of this type the teacher says that they could succeed 
if they would try. Others show very great fluctuations of atten- 
tion. In so great a degree is this true of the reading of a few 
pupils that the term scatter-brained is not inapplicable when 
applied to them. 

Defects in Other Higher Mental Activities. Details concerning 
these various processes are lacking. It is probable that some 
children develop a system of imagery which is too cumbersome. 
It is well known that assimilation may be slow, that the apper- 
ceptive processes may be too active, and that there may be an 



250 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

improper evaluation of the various ideas which enter into the 
material read. 

Defects in Attitudes Toward Reading. It is clear that some 
children approach their reading with the wrong attitude. This 
may take the form of extreme carelessness or extreme overcare- 
fulness. 

Types of Reading Ability 

The complexity of the reading process makes it difificult to 
classify readers into types or classes. The following descriptions 
cannot be considered as final, because other cases may be found 
which should be included in one of the various groups for reasons 
unknown at the present time. Other types may need to be added 
to those discussed here as more cases are studied. A tentative 
classification is of value because it aids much in the study of 
individual pupils. 

Type I. The Efficient Reader. Such a reader shows his ability 
in both oral and silent reading. This means that such a pupil 
stands above the standard scores for the school grade to which 
he belongs in both types of reading. The perceptual ability of 
these children is such that there is a wide span, and the qualita- 
tive phases of material can be distinguished readily and easily. 
On the motor side, such children have established the necessary 
coordinations. The vocal movements as required in oral reading 
are well developed, while in silent reading these same movements 
are reduced to a minimum. The eye-movements have also been 
reduced to a minimum, and the length of each pause of the eyes 
is sufficient only for adequate interpretation. In addition to 
the foregoing, this type of reader has both a synthetic and an 
analytic knowledge of language forms and the necessary appre- 
ciation of language relations. From the standpoint of appercep- 
tion, this group is able to employ a background of meaning and 
of experience in a highly efficient way. To be sure, not all of 
these factors are found in the same degree in different pupils, 
but in general the above description is in accord with the facts. 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 251 

Type 11. TJie Confirmed Poor Reader. Such readers are al- 
most the exact antithesis of the type just described. They are 
inefficient in both oral and silent reading. By this is meant that 
pupils in this group are below standard scores in rate, compre- 
hension, and accuracy. A study of perception as exhibited by 
such children shows a short span, and their errors in oral reading 
indicate clearly that they are not able to avail themselves of 
qualitative differences in material. On the motor side, the 
breathing coordinations are many times poorly established, and 
there may be many extraneous movements. The reaction time 
is slow, and the eye-movements are many, while the pauses 
involved in these movements are long. Further than this, there 
is a lack of analytical ability and little or no appreciation of 
language relations. Again, there are individual pupils in this 
group representing various degrees of ability, but nearly every 
teacher has come in contact with pupils of whom the above 
description is true. 

However, neither of these types which are best understood and 
which can be best described present the most serious problem 
to the teacher. Type I is composed of pupils who have mastered 
the technique of reading or who are well on the road toward such 
mastery. As a result, the problem of the teacher is to maintain 
their interest and their efficiency. For them the methods of the 
school are in most ways sufficient, and their success is assured. 
In their case, one of the chief problems is to find a sufficient 
supply of well-selected reading material. They should also be 
given correct ideals of rate, comprehension, etc., so that their 
development will not stop on a plane which is too low to be in 
accord with their general ability. 

In an opposite way. Type II need not concern the teacher, 
because their efficiency can never be increased in any great 
degree. The pupils in this group probably lack native ability 
and would often be classified as dullards or border-line cases. 
They may be put into special groups and allowed to proceed 
more slowly than others in the class, but it is doubtful whether 



252 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

any special method or device can ever be discovered which will 
do more than place them a little above the illiterate level. 
Whenever it is possible, they should be examined by specialists, 
so that their special difficulty, if such exists, may be determined 
and proper training provided. 

There are many children whose attainments in reading stand 
between the two extremes just discussed. Such pupils are not 
hopeless, so far as reading attainment is concerned, and yet they 
are not up to standards. They are efficient in some respects and 
inefficient in others. The remaining portions of this discussion 
are concerned with pupils of this general class. 

Type III. The Slow Reader. The prevailing fault of those 
in this group is that they are slow. The accuracy and quality 
of their reading may both be satisfactory, except that it takes 
much longer for them to deal with a body of material than it 
should. On the perceptual side, these pupils have a short span, 
and though they are sensitive to differences in language forms 
as shown by their accuracy, the number of cues required to 
initiate recognition is either large or the time required for a 
few cues to function is long. On the motor side, there are fre- 
quent eye-movement pauses, most of which are long. There 
may or may not be extraneous movements present. Many 
times such reading is accompanied by a considerable amount of 
vocalization, and the breathing coordinations may or may not 
be weir established. This type of reading may be due to seven 
causes. 

First, the slowness may result from a lack of sufficient famil- 
iarity with the language forms. Many pupils of this type 
do not have the process of analysis so well established that it 
functions readily and easily. Again, the synthetic knowledge 
of words and phrases may not be on such a plane that recognition 
can take place quickly. Finally, there is a lack of appreciation 
for language relations. The cause of this may be a lack of 
reading. If the pupil had read more or would read more, the diffi- 
culty would in part, at least, be removed. Some children are 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 253 

deficient at this point because someone has always read to them, 
and as a result they have done little or no reading for themselves. 

The second cause which leads to this type of reading is slow 
reaction time. In cases of this kind both the vocal muscles 
and the mental processes may function slowly. If such children 
try to hurry, they only make matters worse. 

A third cause is found in the fact that some readers work at 
a low level of attention. They put little effort into what they 
are doing. As a result, what they do may be good in quality, 
but the amount done makes them very inefi&cient. Circum- 
stances have never forced them to place their efforts on a high 
plane, and as a result their work continues to be inefi&cient from 
the standpoint of rate. Sometimes speed tests point cut such 
students to the teacher and reveal the difficulty to the pupils 
themselves. 

The fourth cause which leads to this type of reading is the 
fact that some pupils depend too much on the objective forms 
of language. Those who fall into this group have been de- 
scribed by Messmer as objective readers. The causes which 
lead to this method of interpretation are not well understood. 

A fifth cause which gives rise to slow reading is over-care. 
Such readers may have been told in their early training that 
they must be slow and sure in their reading. Such a method 
may later become fixed. 

The sixth cause to be mentioned is slow assimilative ability, 
while the seventh cause is a short span of perception. 

It is clear from the preceding that the reasons for slow 
reading are varied. It will require very careful work on the 
part of the teacher if she determines in an accurate way the 
particular cause or causes which operate to make a child slow 
in reading. 

T)^e IV. The Rapid Reader. This type of reader reads 
rapidly but interprets poorly. In silent reading such pupils 
cover considerable ground, but their comprehension is much 
below the standard. In oral reading their rates are apt to be 



254 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

entirely too fast, and their reading inaccurate. A study of this 
group shows that they have a long span of perception. The 
large number of errors which such children make in oral reading 
probably means that they are not sensitive to qualitative differ- 
ences. It may also be that recognition is initiated by too few 
cues. 

On the motor side, the eye-movement pauses are few and 
their duration very short. Indeed, it is highly probable that 
this type of reader often reduces both the number of pauses and 
their length below the limit where efficient reading can take 
place. Vocalization in silent reading is often scarcely per- 
ceptible, and extraneous movements are not present unless the 
child becomes confused and embarrassed. The breathing is, 
for certain pupils, jerky and proceeds in gasps. Their ability 
to deal with language forms and language relations is in most 
cases all that could be desired. Three causes for this type of 
reading may be cited. First, such pupils are often careless and 
indifferent about their work. They may have good ability, 
but have little regard for the results they obtain. Second, 
such reading may be a matter of temperament. If a reader is 
nervous, he may read in a manner which lacks thoroughness and 
which is done too rapidly for accurate results. The third reason 
is the fact that some readers do not depend in a sufficient degree 
upon objective factors. The subjective elements predominate 
in their reading process. The causes of this type of mental 
activity are little understood. 

Type V. Efficient Oral Reader, Inefficient Silent Reader. 
There are a few pupils who are efficient oral readers, but who 
cannot deal with a passage of equal difficulty by means of silent 
reading. The eye-movements for such children in silent read- 
ing show that there are many pauses, which means that the 
reading is done in small units. This is due to two different 
causes. First, there are those readers who have never been 
able to differentiate in their methods between silent and oral 
reading. ' Their silent reading has almost the same number of 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 255 

eye-movement pauses as their oral reading, and vocalization is 
often present in a large degree. Again, their breathing curves 
may present the same form in silent reading as in oral reading. 
In other words, such silent reading has almost all elements of 
oral reading except the movements of the vocal chords. Silent 
reading of this type may be due to the fact that instruction in 
reading nearly always emphasizes oral reading. This means 
that a pupil is left to his own devices, so far as silent reading is 
concerned. Most readers succeed in establishing silent reading 
habits which are fairly successful, but that a few pupils should 
fail to do so is not at all surprising. Such children need to be 
taught silent reading. 

The second cause for this type of reading is slow assimilation. 
In reading of this kind interpretation may be sufficiently rapid 
for oral reading but not so for efhcient silent reading. This 
point is borne out by the fact that slow readers are often good 
oral readers. Such slow recognition may be due to natural 
ability, or it may be due to the fact that language forms have 
never been made sufficiently automatic. For the latter group 
the usual practice of the school is not sufficient to give a rapid 
and efl6cient recognition. They need drill which will place 
them on a higher plane, so far as recognition-time is con- 
cerned. 

Type VI. Efficient Silent Readers, Inefficient Oral Readers. 
Again, there are some pupils who can read well silently, but 
who do poorly when they attempt to read orally. A study of 
the silent reading of such pupils shows that they are efficient 
in all the elements which enter into silent reading. In fact, 
not infrequently they are excellent readers from this standpoint, 
and evidently they try to carry over those methods which make 
for rapidity into their oral reading. As a result, their reading 
has in it many errors. Again, it is a case of not being able to 
differentiate between the methods of oral and, silent reading. 
These pupils have developed a very efficient method of silent 
reading. Such a method gets results quickly and accurately 



256 THE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

Under such conditions it is easy to see that some readers would 
not be able to use a slower and more cumbersome method, as 
required in oral reading. 

Relations of the Various Phases of the Reading Process 
Shown in Outline Form 

In the outline given below, the relations of the various ele- 
ments in the reading process are shown. Each element is 
numbered with Roman numerals. Under each of these, num- 
bered with Arabic numerals, are placed those elements which 
may produce a deficiency in the elements numbered with the 
Roman numeral. To illustrate, Roman I is Rate of Oral Read- 
ing. Defects in this element may be produced by a lack o^ 
assimilative power, a slow rate of vocalization, lack of familiarity 
\vith language forms, a short span of perception, a lack of effort, 
over-care, and too great dependence upon objective forms. 
Theoretically, it is possible to have all these causes operating 
to produce a slow rate, and occasionally there may be found 
such a pupil, but usually only one or two causes are present, or 
it may be that one cause stands out more prominently than 
any other. It is this element which makes defects in reading 
ability hard to diagnose because the same defect in two pupils 
may have different causes. This condition of affairs always 
requires a careful study of the individual case. By looking 
further down the table, it is possible to determine the factors 
which make for slow rate of vocalization, lack of familiarity 
with language forms, etc. 

In only one or two cases, is training mentioned. It is as- 
sumed that the defect exists after the usual training of the 
school has been given. However, in a few cases it was deemed 
wise to give faulty training as a factor which might lead to 
certain defects. Since the preceding discussion has dealt with 
each of the points mentioned in the outline, further consideration 
is not thought necessary. 



• RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 257 

Outline Showing Relation of Factors in Reading 
Process 

I. Rate of Oral Reading 

1. Lack of Assimilative Power 

2. Slow Rate of Vocalization 

3. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 

4. Short Span of Perception 

5. Too Great Dependence upon Objective Cues 

6. Too Great Care 

7. Lack of Effort 

II. Rate of Silent Reading 

1. Faulty Eye-Movement 

2. Lack of Assimilative Power 

3. Large Amount of Vocalization 

4. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 

5. Short Span of Perception 

6. Lack of Effort 

7. Too Great Care 

III. Omissions in Oral Reading 

1. Fields of Perception do not Overlap 

2. Reading from Context 

3. Fluctuations of Attention 

IV. Repetitions in Oral Reading 

1. Habitual 

2. Dissatisfaction with First Attempt 

3. Too Great Overlapping in the Field of Perception 

V. Insertions in Oral Reading 

1. Reading from Context 

2. Fluctuations of Attention 

3. Apperceptive Processes too Active 



258 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

VI. Mispronunciations in Oral Reading 

1. Faulty Perception 

2. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 

3. Speech Defects 

4. Apperceptive Processes too Active 

VII. Substitutions in Oral Reading 

1. Reading from Context 

2. Faulty Perception 

3. Apperceptive Processes too Active 

VIII. Quality of Oral Reading 

1. Failure to Appreciate* Language Relations 

2. Lack of Training 

^ 3. Lack of Assimilation 

IX. Comprehension 

1. Slow Assimilative Power 

2. Failure to Evaluate Different Ideas Properly 

3. Poor Motor Adjustments 

4. Short Span of Perception 

5. Lack of Language Ability 

6. Lack of Synthetic Ability 

7. Lack of Analytic Ability 

X. Faulty Eye-Movements 

1. Short Span of Perception 

2. Periods of Confusion 

3. Poor Motor Coordination 

XI. Breathing 

1. Nervousness 

2. Poor Motor Coordinations 

3. Habitual 

4. Lack of Training 

XII. Rate of Vocalization 

1. Slow Reaction Time 

2. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 



y 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 259 

XIII. Amount of Vocalization 

1. Habitual 

2. Accompaniment of Meaning 

XIV. Extraneous Movements 

1. Nervousness 

2. Habitual 

3. Lack of Adjustment to Reading Situation 

XV. Vocal Movements 

1 . Habitual 

2. Defects in Speaking Parts 

XVI. Span of Perception 

1. Faulty Training 

2. Slow Assimilation 

3. Low Level of Attention 

XVII. Voice-Eye Span 

1. Faulty Training 

2. Slow Assimilation 

3. Low Level of Attention 

Analysis and Synthesis 

The relation of the various phases of reading ability may be 
brought out in still another way. Let it be assumed that all 
these factors are well developed, and that the reading mechan- 
ism is in smooth running order so that each of the previously 
discussed factors plays its part in an efficient manner, and the 
final results of reading are attained easily and smoothly. Such 
a combination of factors into a single process results in definite 
methods of approach to the meaning of printed material. One 
of these methods is analysis and the other is synthesis. 

Synthesis is a rapid, immediate, and direct process. Such 
a process of recognition is usually found in connection with 
material which is easy and familiar. It is probably true that all 



260 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

the letters of the alphabet are recognized in this manner by the 
trained reader, and that most syllables and words of three or 
four letters are dealt with in the same manner. Doubtless, 
many of the longer words with which one is very familiar do not 
require analysis. In the same way, phrases and short sentences 
may be apprehended by synthesis. However, if a trained reader 
is confronted with new words, even though they be short, the 
synthetic process breaks down and other methods are required. 
Another element which makes synthesis difficult in certain cases 
is that many of our words are very similar in appearance. 
However, the synthetic method of reading should be the final 
and ultimate goal of all reading instruction, but such method 
of dealing with language forms must be supplemented by other 
methods which are to function when the synthetic processes 
fail the reader. There are certain difficulties which attach to 
the synthetic methods which should be emphasized. 

Some pupils seem to approach all language by synthetic 
processes, but since this method is not sufficient to meet all 
situations which arise in dealing with language, they are inac- 
curate in their interpretation of words and other language forms 
with which they are not familiar. When such readers come in 
contact with new words, they are satisfied if they can get the 
meaning from the context. If the pronunciation is difficult 
the word is skipped. Such readers seldom distinguish between 
words which are similar in form or in sound, and they may be 
embarrassed many times by such mistakes. This attitude can 
well be characterized as slovenly and careless. It should be 
discouraged by all teachers of reading. 

The analytic process stands opposed to synthesis. It is a 
mediate process, somewhat indirect in its nature and relatively 
slow in its procedure. One type of analysis with which the child 
comes in contact very early in his training in reading has to do 
with letters. Certain letters are very much alike, and it becomes 
necessary for the pupil to note carefully the differences which 
exist between them. A second type of analysis required of the 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 261 

child is to be found in phonics. The oral experience of the child 
with language is highly synthetic. Printed language is of such 
a nature that progress in it requires some understanding of the 
laws and principles which underlie the parts into which words 
are divided. This type of analysis is required because the 
various sounds which go to make up the oral word are repre- 
sented by letters and syllables. The ability to make use of the 
laws and principles of phonics seems to exist on various levels. 
At first, it is a somewhat slow and tedious oral process. Later, 
all the work of this type can be done mentally, and still later it 
develops into an analytical attitude towards all language. 
Again, analysis is required in. the study of language relations. 
Language is complex, and if comprehension in reading is to take 
place readily and easily, a knowledge of these various relations 
is necessary. 

Analysis may also be a phase of the perceptual process. This 
is to be seen in the recognition of similar words and in the recog- 
nition of difficult or unfamiliar words. The nature of this process 
is not well understood, but it seems to be fundamental to much 
reading. A study of eye-movements shows clearly that the ana- 
lytical process ceases to function on certain occasions. This 
may result in periods of confusion. Under such conditions the 
reading process is always very much delayed, and in other cases 
it may break down entirely. 

There are also certain dangers which may arise from the 
analytical method of attack to which attention should be called. 
It becomes so fixed in the mental activity of some pupils that it 
almost entirely supersedes the synthetic process. This predomi- 
nance of the analytic method may be produced by overemphasis 
upon small units of meaning during the early training period. 
It results in overcareful and very slow work. Extreme forms of 
the analytic method are to be avoided, and care should be exer- 
cised by teachers to see that children do not develop them. It is 
evident that the efficient reader must use both the synthetic 
and analytic methods, but the analytical method should never 



262 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

become the prevailing method. It is only a reserve method 
which is to be brought into use upon certain occasions. 

A Comparison of Oral and Silent Re7U)ing 

It is the purpose now to summarize the data which have been 
presented upon this problem in such a way as to make more 
definite the contrast between the two types of reading. The 
results for eye-movements have shown that oral reading requires 
more pauses than does silent reading, and that the units by which 
material is interpreted in silent reading are very different from 
those by which material is interpreted in oral reading. To get 
meaning by means of small units as required in oral reading 
requires a definite mental set and a definite form of mental 
activity ; and to get it by the large units of silent reading requires 
quite a different mental set and a different form of mental 
activity. For the keen, alert, and well-trained reader the first 
may be the difficult method, while for the poorly trained or slow 
reader the second is, without doubt, the difficult method. 

The objections to the short units of interpretation from the 
standpoint of the good reader are easy to see. First, they make 
interpretation slow. If the reader is interested and anxious to 
push on through the reading matter, he is held back by having 
to deal with small units. Hence, he loses patience and may lose 
inte "est. In many cases the voice-eye span extends over several 
words. Every trained reader can testify to the tantalizing effect 
of this phase of oral reading. It requires considerable patience 
to have a group of words already interpreted and dangling 
before one at all times during the oral reading activity. Under 
such conditions it is difficult to refrain from pushing ahead 
rapidly into the passage. 

In the second place, small units may be hard to deal with. It 
is clear that each unit has to be related to that which follows it. 
Therefore the more units, the more relating to be done. This 
choppy way of dealing with material is very irksome to some 
persons. 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 263 

In the third place, the small units may be diificult because the 
habit of dealing with large units is firmly fixed and the reader 
finds it hard to change to methods involving small units. The 
habit of using large units as a basis of interpretation may become 
so thoroughly the prevailing method that the use of any other 
method is almost precluded. The attempt to impose oral read- 
ing upon a child in the upper grades who has acquired the rapid 
methods of silent reading is to expect a difficult performance, for 
his entire mental machinery is habituated to the rapid methods. 

The chief objection to the small unit of interpretation from the 
standpoint of good teaching is that it makes for mental lethargy. 
There is no opportunity for the reader to work up to his limit, 
and as a result he becomes habituated to and satisfied with slow 
methods. This is probably the most pernicious habit to which 
poor training in reading may lend itself. The alert pupil may 
develop an attitude toward all reading which leads him to be 
satisfied with slow methods and with working upon a low level 
of effort. These points serve to emphasize the fact that if oral 
reading is continued too long, as the child proceeds from grade 
to grade, there is the possibility of fixing definitely the method 
of interpreting by small units. 

Another difference existing between oral and silent reading 
is that which relates to the number of motor elements involved 
in each. In oral reading such elements are necessary and are 
involved in considerable numbers. In silent reading, with the 
exception of eye-movements, they are eliminated. 

The discussion thus far seems to warrant the statement that 
there are in oral and silent reading two separate and distinct 
habits. Each of these has its mental set, its method of interpre- 
tation, its perceptual processes, and its motor habits. To make 
this point clearer, an example of a different character may be 
given. If a person works at a desk with two similar ink wells 
before him, one at his right and the other at his left, he can soon 
estabhsh the habit of dipping his pen into the ink well to the right 
at all times and under all circumstances. If he is required to 



264 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

cease dipping his pen in the right-hand well and to dip it into 
the left-hand well, the new habit is soon so well established that 
no mistakes are made. Miinsterberg has shown that in a case 
of this sort one may develop first one of the habits and then the 
other until it is possible to decide which habit one cares to use, 
and after the decision is made, one may use the habit selected 
without errors. 

The case of the child in reading is not unlike this. He first 
builds up the habit of oral reading, and then is called upon to 
develop the habit of silent reading. Though much of the 
reading of the school is oral, yet the child is expected to change 
to silent reading on a moment's notice. The study of the child 
in reading is carried on silently, but his recitations in this subject 
are usually oral. Here is a transfer from one habit to another. 
The child has to develop two distinct habits of reading, and has 
to be able to change from one to the other instantly. Adults who 
read silently on most occasions make the change to oral reading 
in a clumsy and awkward fashion, while those persons who read 
a great deal of poetry orally have difficulty in reading such 
material silently. In other words, the child is expected to do 
what the adult has difficulty in doing. This view of the two 
types of reading suggests important problems in training. 

The Reading of Adults Compared with the Reading of 

Children 

The final standpoint from which the summary is to be made 
is a comparison of the reading of adults and of children. The 
study of eye-movements has shown important likenesses and 
differences in the reading of each of these types of readers. 
Adults reduce the number and length of their eye-movement 
pauses to a minimum. In such reading the regressive move- 
ments are infrequent and short. This means that such reading 
proceeds in units for which interpretation is seldom lacking, 
and that when recognition does fail to take place, a quick recov- 
ery is made. If records B and C in Figure ii are examined in 



RELATIONS AMONG THE FACTORS 265 

this connection, one is impressed with the regularity of the 
movements. It is true that this regularity disappears in certain 
lines, but for the most part the reading is done in a rhythmical 
manner. Dearborn was the first to call attention to this element 
in adult reading. He held that if lines were of equal length and 
the material homogeneous, the eye tended to take on a brief 
motor habit. The fundamental factor in such a habit is the un- 
conscious process by means of which the points where the eyes 
are to stop are determined. The experimental evidence upon 
this point indicates that this process depends in a large measure 
upon the ability to anticipate meaning. In the case of the 
trained reader the anticipation of meaning can be accomplished 
in easy and familiar material without difficulty. The fact that 
rhythm disappears in difficult or strange material indicates that 
the anticipation of meaning which is almost entirely absent in 
reading of this type plays its part in the location of the various 
eye-movement pauses. 

The discussion of peripheral vision and the cumulative effects 
of eye-movements has shown clearly that a long span of percep- 
tion allows a partial interpretation of the material which is to 
come. It has also been pointed out that a knowledge of language 
relations gives a partial interpretation. Another factor which 
lends itself to the same end is apperception. It is clear then 
that these three factors are very important factors in establish- 
ing the rhythmical character of adult reading, in that they aid in 
determining the points of fixation through anticipated meaning. 

Another problem involved in rhythmical reading, as just 
described, is the unit by which it proceeds. These units vary 
from individual to individual. A fundamental question in- 
volved is why one person uses one unit as a basis for his reading, 
and another with equal training and equal ability makes use of 
a very different one. One cause for this difference is, without 
doubt, to be expressed in terms of mental effort. The level 
on which the work of most persons proceeds is probably a 
fundamental characteristic of their mental activity. This 



266 ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY 

characteristic leads the person to start his reading in a unit 
of a certain length, and as experience is gained this unit estab- 
lishes itself. 

Efficient adult reading may now be contrasted with the 
efficient reading of children. The reading portrayed in Fig- 
ure II was said to approach the adult type. Schmidt has called 
attention to the fact that the reading of children is more erratic 
than that of adults. These erratic phases were shown in the 
number and length of regressive movements. Such movements 
indicate that the points at which the eye-movement pauses are 
located have not been determined accurately. That is, the 
reading of the child does not have the same rhythmical char- 
acter as adult reading. From this standpoint, the child has 
not reached the place in his experience where the partial in- 
terpretations of peripheral vision or of language relations or of 
apperception function in his reading, as they do in the case of 
the adult. Another factor is that the child has not definitely 
established the unit in which his reading is to proceed, and 
experience has not given him facility in the use of such a unit. 

The fundamental difference between adult and child reading 
is found, then, in the element of rhythm. In all other respects 
he may approach adult reading, but in the use of those three 
fundamental factors which give rhythm to his reading he needs 
experience and training. In addition to this, the child has not 
definitely established a unit for his interpretation of material. 
It is probably true that many of the problems for efficient in- 
struction in reading center about these various factors. 



PART II 

A COMPILATION OF TESTS AND METHODS OF 
OBSERVATION FOR DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES 



CHAPTER XVI 

SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS TO BE USED FOR 
THE PURPOSE OF DIAGNOSIS 

Introduction 

The discussion of the preceding chapters has been given over 
to an analysis of the reading process. The problem of diagnosis 
requires, next, that methods be provided by means of which 
the presence or absence of the various elements in the reading 
of any individual pupil may be determined. The attempt is 
made to bring together all the material needed for such work in a 
wav that will save as much time as possible for the teacher. The 
plan is so arranged that the diagnosis can be made fairly com- 
plete or it can be made less complete, just as the case demands. 
The methods available for carrying out this diagnosis involve 
tests and observations. Along with the compilation of these 
will go directions for using the various tests and for making the 
different t}T3es of observations. Directions will also be given 
for scoring results and for recording the scores obtained by the 
methods outlined. Finally, the resulting scores will be inter- 
preted in such a way as to serve as a basis for remedial work. 

Apparatus Needed. The plan outUned here requires three 
pieces of simple apparatus. These are a stop watch, ^ a short- 
exposure apparatus, and a mirror. If the stop watch is not 
available, any watch with a second hand can be used; and if 
the money with which to buy a short-exposure apparatus carmot 
be had, a simple apparatus may be made from working drawings 
given later in the discussions. These drawings will enable a 
local carpenter, or boys in manual training, to construct this 
apparatus. 

^ These forms of apparatus may be had from C. H. Stoelting, Chicago. 
269 



270 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

General Methods of Procedure. The plan as outlined in the 
following pages is based upon individual testing. The first step 
is to give Monroe's silent reading test. This is to be followed by 
Gray's oral reading test. A careful study of the results of these 
tests will indicate whether it is necessary to use other tests of 
a similar type. If additional tests are necessary, they may be 
selected from the supplementary tests which are provided. 
Careful study on the part of the examiner will be necessary in 
order to determine which test or tests will apply to the case at 
hand. In most instances this will not be difficult, and the study 
will become more interesting as more data are procured. 

An examiner who is inexperienced in such work should not 
undertake to study in the detailed way outlined here more than 
two or three children at any one time. Work of this type 
should be undertaken as a definite problem. Conferences should 
be held with supervisors or principals, and the scientific literature 
upon the problems of reading should be studied. Problems of 
this kind should not be rushed. All directions should be studied 
carefully, so that the meaning of each test and experiment may 
be understood. If these general directions are followed, the 
work will be of advantage to both teachers and pupils. 

A Cooperative Plan of Procedure. In certain schools a number 
of teachers may wish to cooperate in their study of pupils. In 
such instances, it may be well for one or two teachers to take 
charge of all the silent reading testing which is to be done; 
a second group may study carefully and be responsible for the 
oral tests; a third group may assume responsibility for the per- 
ception tests; and still a fourth group may give the motor tests. 

Such a plan saves any one teacher the necessity of studying 
in detail all the different types of tests and also gives any group 
of teachers greater opportunity for study and work upon the 
particular type of test for which the group is responsible. 

This method also makes possible the careful study of a con- 
siderable number of pupils. From this number each teacher 
should select three or four for the remedial work. After these are 



-SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 271 

selected, a conference of each teacher with every other teacher 
who has helped in the diagnosis should be held before the 
remedial work is begun. 

Plan of Procedure for Principals and Supervisors. In some 
instances principals wiU desire to undertake such work as a 
school project. The first step in such a procedure should be 
the enlistment of the cooperation of the teachers who are to 
have charge of the pupils studied. If emphasis is placed upon 
the fact that the ultimate end of the method is the study of 
individual pupils, most teachers will immediately show an 
interest. If the interest of the teachers is properly aroused, the 
cooperative plan, as outlined before, may be followed. 

The Selection of Pupils 

The Group Method. An important matter upon which the 
success of the method depends is the proper selection of the 
pupils to be studied. If it is desired to deal with any consider- 
able number of children, it will be necessary to use the group 
method of selection. This consists in giving the Monroe silent 
reading test to all pupils under the charge of the teacher who is 
to be immediately responsible for the diagnosis and remedial 
work. When this test has been scored, all pupils who fall below 
the school median may be selected for further consideration. 
Some of those whose score is low will probably be so backward 
in all their school work that they may be eliminated from the 
number. Experience has shown that in most cases about one 
third of the class will be listed for further study. From this 
point forward the work must be carried on as an individual 
matter. This plan of procedure has been used with success by 
those who are experienced in such work. The only difficulty 
involved is the large number of pupils^ for whom the detailed 
work of diagnosis is required. 

The Individual Method. For those who are inexperienced, 
the individual method of selection is urged. This consists in 
selecting one or two children for intensive work. If the one 



272 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

interested in starting the project is a teacher, she may select 
one or two pupils from her own grade. If the one interested in 
the work is a principal, he should select teachers to carry on the 
diagnosis who have some training in psychological procedure 
and who are best adapted to such work. Each teacher should 
then select one or two children for special study. The pupils 
who are of interest in this connection are those who have special 
difficulty with reading. The following description of a typical 
case by Judd may be cited at this time. 

The girl, case G, entered the first grade of the Elementary School of the 
University of Chicago when six years and two months old; left the city at 
the end of the year; entered the second grade in the public school of a small 
town in a neighboring state; returned to Chicago again after a year's 
absence and entered the low third grade of the public schools of Chicago. 
In the middle of the same year she reentered the University Elementary 
School in the high third grade. 

The school physician's record shows that she is a normal, healthy child, 
with no special defects in eyes, ears, or throat. She was absent sixteen days 
during her two and a half years in thi'. school; eleven of these absences were 
in Grade la. She is very slow in movements but responsive in her reactions 
when especially interested. 

She is rated by her teachers as a good student in subjects other than 
reading. Her scho A record in handwork, drawing, penmanship, and mathe- 
matics is very good (B and A), and good (B) in history, geography, and 
science. In reading, however, she has stood consistently at C or D from the 
first through the fourth grade. 

Reading seems to be her greatest weakness. Her fourth grade teacher 
reported her as "a slow reader who reads hesitatingly and haltingly, repeat- 
ing words and phrases. Her breathing is very shallow, often causing her 
to pause for breath in the middle of a word or phrase. Her voice is thick, 
heavy, and unpleasantly nasal. Silent reading is particularly distasteful 
to her. She always settles down to it reluctantly and tardily." 

From her home comes much the same story. " She has never read a story 
to herself, though she has several attractively illustrated children's books. 
She frequently, however, after eagerly studying the illustrations in a new 
book, begs to have the story read to her, saying, 'You read it, mother. I 
can't understand it very well when I read it myself.' " 

It should be emphasized again that the study of children who 
are mentally deficient or who are very poor in all studies will only 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 273 

take the time and energy of the teacher and will avail little. 
Such cases are already diagnosed in so far as the regular teacher 
can deal with them. They are subjects for specialists. If there 
are those about whom the teacher cannot be sure, she may use the 
present methods in order to determine their status more definitely. 

After the selection of the children is made, the plan set forth 
on the following pages may be used. This method has been 
arranged for individual work and not for group testing. 

Number of Tests to he Used. An important problem at this 
juncture is the number of tests and observations necessary for 
making a diagnosis. A general rule which may be followed is: 
Continue to give tests and to make observations until the case is 
understood. This does not mean that the work should proceed 
in a blind way, but that each test given or observation made 
should suggest another type of test or observation and so on 
until a solution of the case is reached. In some instances an 
understanding of the pupil's difficulty may be reached after two 
or three tests have been made, while in other instances it may 
be necessary to use most of the tests and observations listed in 
the pages which follow. This phase of the problem will become 
easier as experience is gained in the work. 

STANDARDIZED SILENT READING TEST 

Devised by Walter S. Monroe 

This test is given for the purpose of determining the child's 
rate of reading and his ability to comprehend, as indicated by 
answers to questions upon a series of selections of increasing 
difficulty. It probably represents a specialized type of reading, 
but it is used here for the purpose of giving a general index of 
reading ability. It should be given to all children who are 
studied in this manner. 

General Directions eor Giving the Test 

I. The pupil should be tested individually in a quiet place 
where he will be free from distraction. 



274 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

2. Time should be taken to get the pupil in the right frame 
of mind toward the work. If the examiner is the regular teacher 
of the pupil, only a few explanations concerning the tests are 
necessary. Usually the children who are to be studied in this 
intensive way are those who have difificulty in their reading. 
If this be true, the teacher can speak of the test as extra drill 
which will probably increase the efhciency of the pupil's reading. 
The work should never be spoken of as a test unless the child 
is accustomed to taking tests and has learned not to be confused 
by such work. 

If the examiner is from outside the school, a somewhat differ- 
ent attack must be made. The author has found that a state- 
ment such as the following is effective: John (examiner will sub- 
stitute correct name) your teacher (or principal) has reported 
to me that you have difficulty with your reading. She (or he) 
has asked me to try to help you with some of these difficulties. 
I have been able to help other boys and girls, and if you will 
work hard and do just what I tell you probably I can be of some 
assistance to you. Are you willing to work with me in this 
matter? 

3. Time can be kept much better with a stop watch than 
with an ordinary watch. If a stop watch cannot be had, any 
watch with a second hand may be used. 

4. The observations upon "amount of vocalization" should 
be made while the silent reading tests are being given. See the 
directions for making such observations under the directions 
for the motor tests on page 317. 

5. Watch for extraneous movements. See directions on 
page 318. 

6. Have the child fill in the blank at the beginning of the 
test with his name, age, grade, and so forth. 

7. Score this test according to the directions on page 329. 
Record the results in the proper place on page 341. See direc- 
tions for interpretation in Chapter XX. 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 275 

Suggestions upon Interpretation or Results 

a. Is the pupil poor both in rate and comprehension, or 
does one of these factors seem much more pronounced than 
the other? If the pupil is slow, the speed test given later in 
the chapter may be tried. If comprehension is poor, the eye- 
movements may be observed for periods of confusion and 
regressiye movements. 

b. Did he work as though he knew how to proceed? 

c. If not, did he fail to understand the directions? 

d. Did he put his whole effort into the work? If not, try the 
speed test. 

e. Does the result of the test correspond with your general 
estimate of his ability? If not, try one or more tests in the 
supplementary list given in the latter portion of this chapter. 

/. Study the test sheet to see if you can detect the pupil's 
difficulty. 

8. The next step in the procedure is to give the Gray Oral 
Reading Test. 

For Grades j, 4 and 5 

City State Date 

Pupil's Name Age .Grade 

School Teacher 

Instructions to be Read by Teacher and Pupil Together 

This brief test is given to see how quickly and accurately pupils can read 
silently. To show what sort of test it is, let us read this: 



I am a little dark-skinned girl. I wear a slip of brown 
buckskin and a pair of moccasins. I live in a wigwam. What 
kind of a girl do you think I am? 

Chinese French Indian African Eskimo 



The answer to this exercise is "Indian," and it is to be indicated by 
drawing a line around the word. The test consists of a number of exercises 
like this one. In some of the exercises you are told to draw a line around 



276 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



the word which is the right answer or to mark it in some other way, and in 
some you are to write out your answer. If an exercise is wrong it will not 
count, so it is wise to study each one carefully until you know exactly what 
you are asked to do. . The number of exercises which you can finish thus in 
five minutes will make your score, so do them as fast as you can, being sure 
to do them right. Stop at once when time is called. Do not open the 
papers until told, so that all may begin at the same time. 

The teacher should then be sure that each pupil has a good pencil or pen. 
Note the minute and second by the watch and say, BEGIN, 

Allow Exactly Five Minnies When time is up, say STOP. 



Rate 

Value 

8 



Rate 
Value 

7 



Rate 

Value 

7 



Rate 

Value 

9 



No. I 

"I am not playing, little girl," said the squirrel. 
"I am running to my home in the hollow tree. Don't 
you hear my babies calling me? I must feed them." 

Where was the home of the squirrrel? 

In the 



No, 2 

The little Pilgrim girls carried their work boxes 
to the dame-schools and learned to sew and knit as 
well as to read and write. 

Where did the girls go with their work boxes? 

To the 



No. 3 

When the white men first came to this country 
they found the red men, or Indians, living in wig- 
wams, made of long poles and covered with skins. 

Which people lived here first, the white or red? 



No. 4 

Hiawatha was a little Indian boy. He had no 
father and no mother. He lived with his grand- 
mother, Nokomis. His home was in a wigwam. 

Draw a line under the word that tells whom Hia 
watha lived with. 

father aunt mother uncle sister grandmother 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1-3 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1-3 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1-3 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1.4 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 



277 



Rate 

Value 

6 



Rate 

Value 

7 



Rate 
Value 

10 



Rate 

Value 

5 



Rate 

Value 

8 



No. 5 

The cabin of Uncle Tom was a small log build- 
ing close adjoining to "the house," as the negro 
designates his master's dwelling. 

Of what material was Uncle Tom's cabin built? 



No. 6 

A crab who lived in a sand-hill was sitting at his 
door in the sun eating a rice cake. An ape went by, 
carrying an orange seed. 

Where did the crab live? 



No. 7 

In the western part of the United States there 
are large tracts of land known as deserts. On these 
deserts one may travel for scores of miles without 
seeing vegetation of any kind excepting cactus and 
scattered blades of grass. 

Would you expect to find many trees in these 
deserts? 



No. 8 

Spring is the time for planting seeds. They grow 
fastest in summer. Autumn is the harvest time 
When are seeds put into the ground? 



No. 9 



The mother stork sat in her nest with her four! Compre 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1.4 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1-5 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1-7 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
1.8 



little ones. At a little distance, on the top of the roof, 
stood the father stork. He held one leg up and stood 
on the other. 

Where was the father stork? 



hension 
Value 

2.0 



278 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Rate 

Value 

9 



Rate 
Value 



Rate 
Value 



Rate 
Value 

lO 



No. II 

The carp is a fish that Hves in the rivers of Japan; 
it can leap high out of tlie water and jump over rocks; 
it can even leap over waterfalls, and swim against a 
strong current. If you think the carp is a strong fish, 
draw a line under the word "carp"; if not, draw a 
circle around it. 

carp 



No. 10 

Six white eggs on a bed of hay 
Flecked with purple, apretty sight! 

There as the mother sits all day 
Robert is singing with all his might. 
The above lines of a poem tell about a bird's 
nest. Of what was this bird's nest made? 



No. 12 

At last, by despair and by famine made bold, 
All dripping with wet and all trembling with cold, 
The cricket crept off to the miserly ant. 

If you think this cricket was happy, draw a line 
under the word "happy," but if you think he was 
unhappy, draw a line around the word "unhappy.' 
happy unhappy 



No. 13 

In order to live in Holland the people have built 
dikes, to keep the sea out, and have dug canals to 
drain the land. The water that collects inside the dikes 
is pumped out by windmills. 

Draw a line under the word below that which 
most nearly describes the land in Holland. 

mountainous low desert high 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 



279 



Rate 
Value 

10 



Rate 

Value 

9 



Rate 

Value 

14 



No. 14 

We shall pay a visit to the frogs. They will bow 
to us and sing "Croak, croak," and we shall eat 
them. Then we shall fly away to a warm country. 

In this paragraph the old stork is talking to the 
young ones. What does she say the frogs will sing? 



No. 15 

A silly young cricket, accustomed to sing 

Through the warm, sunny months of gay summer 

and spring. 
Began to complain, when he found that at home 
His cupboard was empty, and winter had come. 

Draw a line under the word which best describes 
the cricket. 

wise faithful foolish proud prudent 



No. 16 

By the sound of the birch he urged some tardy 
loiterer along the flowery path of knowledge. Truth 
to say he was a very conscientious man and ever bore 
in mind the maxim, "Spare the rod and spoil the 
child." 

Ichabod Crane was a school teacher. If you 
think he spoiled his scholars, draw a line under rod; 
if he did not, draw a line under child. 

rod scholars child teacher 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
2.9 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3.0 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3-5 



r 



280 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

For Grades <5, 7, and 8 

City State Date 

Pupil's Name Age Grade. . . . 

School Teacher 



Rate 

Value 

5 



Rate 

Value 

7 



Rate 

Value 

7 



Rate 

Value 

8 



No. I 

Oil floats on water because it is lighter than water. 
Milk mixes with water because milk and water are 
of equal weight. 

Which is lighter, oil or milk? 



No. 2 

At evening when I go to b;d 
I see the stars shine overhead; 
They are the little daisies white 
That dot the meadow of the night. 
What are the little white daisies of the night? 



No. 3 

O suns and skies and clouds of June, 
And flowers of June together 
You cannot rival for one hour 
October's bright blue weather. 
Which month does this stanza say is the more 
pleasant? 



No. 4 

They rested and talked. Their talk was all about 
their flocks, a dull theme to the world, yet a theme 
which was all the world to them. 

What do you suppose was the occupation of these 
men? 
carpenter doctor merchant shepherd blacksmith 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
2.1 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
2.8 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
2.7 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 



281 



Rate 

Value 

4 



Rate 
Value 

12 



Rate 
Value 



Rate 

Value 

15 



No. 6 

The dog lay down. The rooster flew to the top 
of a tree and the cat climbed to one of the branches. 
Before they went to sleep the rooster saw a light 
in the forest. He called to his friends. 

Where was the light the rooster saw? Draw a 
line around the word that tells where. 

sky house barn wagon forest 



No. 5 

Africa is smaller than Asia, and North America is 
not as large as Africa. Which is smaller, Asia or 
North America? 



No. 7 

He was a wicked ruler, who, with his still more 
wicked sons, oppressed and wronged the people in 
many ways. 

If he people would be sorry when the ruler and 
his sons died, draw a line under the word ruler; if 
they would be glad, cross out the word ruler, 
ruler 



No. 8 

He said to his friend: "If the Britisti march 
By land or sea from the town tonight, 
Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry-arch 
Of the North Church tower, as a signal light, 
One if by land and two if by sea; 
And I on the opposite shore will be 
Ready to ride and spread the alarm." 

If the British came by land, how many lights did 
the man see in the church tower? 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 

2.8 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3-4 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3-0 



282 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Rate 

Value 

12 



Rate 

Value 

17 



Rate 

Value 

10 



No. 9 

The higher you go the colder the air is. Cold con 
denses moisture and causes it to fall as rain. The 
wind in our western states blows from the west across 
the Rocky Mountains. 

Would you expect it to be dry or wet east of these 
mountains? If dry, draw a line under air; if wet, 
draw a line under rain. 



No. ID 

It was cold, bleak, biting weather; foggy withal; 
and he could hear the people in the court outside go 
wheezing up and down, beating their hands upon 
their breasts and stamping their feet upon the pave 
ment-stones to warm them. 

The author has attempted to give you a picture 
in this paragraph. After reading the paragraph, 
if you think it is a picture of comfort and pleasantness, 
draw a line under the word hear; if of cheerlessness 
and dreariness, draw a line under bleak. 

hear wind bleak cold 



No. II 

The boy stood on the burning deck, 

Whence all but he had fled; 
The flame that lit the battle's wreck, 

Shone round him o'er the dead: 
Yet beautiful and bright he stood, 

As born to rule the storm. 

Draw a line under the word that best describes the boy. 
cowardly mischievous brave young good 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3-4 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
4-3 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
3.6 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 



283 



Rate 

Value 

II 



Rate 

Value 

14 



Rate 

Value 

13 



No. 12 

Aladdin's uncle said: "I will take a shop and furnish 
it for you." Aladdin was delighted with the idea, for 
he thought there was very little work in keeping a 
shop. He liked that better than anything else. 

Draw a line under the word below that tells us what 
kind of a boy Aladdin was. 

industrious ambitious active lazy honest 



No. 13 

Not far from Greensburg is a little valley, among the 
high hills. A small brook glides through it, with just 
murmur enough to lull one to repose; and the occa 
sional whistle of a quail, or tapping of a woodpecker, is 
almost the only sound that ever breaks in upon the 
uniform tranquillity. 

What kind of a picture do you get from reading the 
above paragraph? 
disorder activity noise calmness confusion 



No. 14 

The soldier crawled out of the trench, where he had 
spent the night. He was covered with mud from head 
to foot, and almost frozen. He looked around at his 
companions. What a miserable lot they were! This, 
then, was the glorious war told about in the papers. 

Draw a line under the word below that tells how 
the soldier felt, 
happy patriotic brave angry downhearted 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
4.1 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
4.4 



Compre- 
hension 
Value 
5-4 



STANDARDIZED ORAL READING TEST 

Devised by William S. Gray 

This test is given for the purpose of determining the pupil's 
oral rate and his ability to deal with words in context. Tt will 
give a definite idea of the child's vocabulary and his adjustment 



284 LI AGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

to the reading process. It should be given to all pupils who are 
dealt with from the standpoint of diagnosis. 

Directions por Giving the Test 

1. The same general plan should be followed as in the pre- 
ceding test. 

2. The child should be made to understand that this test is 
a continuation of the work which preceded and thus be put at 
his ease. 

3. The child must be supplied with a copy of the test. See 
that the cover pages are cut at the proper places in the copy 
that the child uses. 

4. In order to get the time as accurately as possible with a 
stop watch, notice the child as he turns the cover page and snap 
the watch just as he starts to speak the first word. If an ordinary 
watch is used, say "ready" just before the second hand comes 
to some convenient point. The child then turns the cover page 
and just as the hand reaches the predetermined point the 
examiner says "begin." 

5. Record the time for each passage in the places designated 
on the margin at the right in the copy which you use. 

6. In recording errors the following set of symbols may be 
used: 

a. A means insertions. 
h. means omissions. 

c. A word or part of a word underlined means a mispro- 
nunciation. 

d. A word or phrase underlined with a,n" R" above indicates 
a repetition. 

In order to illustrate clearly the character of errors and the 
method of recording them, the following paragraph is quoted 
from Gray's work: 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 285 

The sun pierced into ir^large windows. It was the opening of October, 
and the^sky was^a dazzling blue. I looked out of my window Cand) down 
the street. The white hou9e©of the long, st(^ight street were^^ost painful 
to the eyes. The clear atmosphere allowed full play tgjljg sjyj^Jjrightness. 

"If a word is wholly mispronounced, underline it as in the case of 'at- 
mosphere.' If a portion of a word is mispronounced, mark appropriately as 
indicated above: 'pierced' pronounced in two syllables, sounding long a in 
'dazzling,' omitting the j in 'houses' or the al from 'almost,' or the r in 
'straight.' Omitted words are marked as in the case of 'of and 'and'; sub- 
stitutions as in the case of 'many' for 'my'; insertions as in the case of 'clear'; 
and repetitions as in the case of 'to the sun's.' Two or more words should be 
repeated to count as a repetition. 

"It is very difficult to record the exact nature of each error. Do this as 
nearly as you can. In all cases where you are unable to define clearly the 
specific character of the error, underline the word or portion of the word 
mispronounced. Be sure you put down a mark for each error. In case you 
are not sure that an error was made, give the pupil the benefit of the doubt. 
If the pupil has a slight foreign accent, distinguish carefully between this 
difficulty and real errors." 

7. You should also evaluate the following points concerning 
the oral reading: poise, pitch, interpretation, articulation, pro- 
nunciation, emphasis, and force. For more specific directions 
upon these points, see the directions for scoring, page 333. It 
may be well to estimate these points from the daily work of the 
child. 

8. Watch for extraneous movements. See page 318. 

9. Have the child fill in the blanks for age, grade, etc. 

10. Score the test according to the directions on page 331, 
and record the results as indicated on page 342. It should be 
noted that a record sheet is provided for the various types of 
errors. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation of Results 

I. Is the rate slow? If such slowness seems to be due to 
a lack of vocabulary, try the vocabulary test. If there seems 



286 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

to be no lack of vocabulary, try the test for rate of vocalization 
and span of perception. 

2. Does the child indicate that he understands what he 
reads? If not, observe his eye-movements. 

3. Is he lacking in word knowledge? If doubtful, give the 
vocabulary test. 

4. Does he have an appreciation of language relations? If 
doubtful, give the Trabue language test. 

5. Study the various errors by means of the outline on page 
348. 

Name Grade Age 

Date. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

On a few of the pages which follow this there are some short 
prose selections. I want you to read them orally. Read as 
you do when you are called upon by your teacher to read. If 
you should find some hard words, read them as best you can 
without help and continue reading. Do not turn any pages until 
I ask you to do so. 



A boy had a dog. 

The dog ran into the woods. 

The boy ran after the dog. 

He wanted the dog to go home. 

But the dog would not go home. 

The little boy said, 

"I cannot go home without my dog." 

Then the boy began to cry. 

Time. 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 287 



Once there were a cat and a mouse. They hved in 
the same house. The cat bit off the mouse's taiL 
"Pray, puss," said the mouse, "give me my long tail 
again." 

"No," said the cat, "I will not give you your tail 
till you bring me some milk." 

Time 

3 

Once there lived a king and queen in a large palace. But 
the king and queen were not happy. There were no little 
children in the house or garden. One day they found a 
poor little boy and girl at their door. They took them 
into the palace and made them their own. The king and 
queen were then happy. 

Time 

4 

Once I went home from the city for a summer's rest. I 
took my gun for a stroll in the woods where I had shot many 
squirrels. I put my gun against a tree and lay down upon 
the leaves Soon I was fast asleep dreaming of a group of 
merry, laughing children running and playing about me 
on all sides. 

Time 

5 

One of the most interesting birds which ever Hved in 
my bird-room was a blue jay named Jakie He was full 
of business from morning till night, scarcely ever still. He 
had been stolen from a nest long before he could fly, and 



288 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

he had been reared in a house long before he had been 
given to me as a pet. 



Time. 



The part of farming enjoyed most by a boy is the making of 
maple sugar. It is better than blackberrying and almost as good 
as fishing. One reason why a boy likes this work is that some one 
else does most of it. It is a sort of work in which he can appear to 
be very industrious and yet do but httle. 

Time 

7 
It was one of those wonderful evenings such as are found only 
in this magnificent region. The sun had sunk behind the moun- 
tains, but it was still Hght. The pretty twilight glow embraced 
a third of the sky, and against its brilliancy stood the dull white 
masses of the mountains in evident contrast. 

Time 



The crown and glory of a useful life is character. It is the 
noblest possession of man. It constitutes a rank in itself, an 
estate in the general good will, dignifying every station and 
exalting every position in society. It exercises a greater power 
than wealth, and is a valuable means of securing honor. 

Time 

9 
He was six feet tall and his body was well proportioned. His 
complexion inclined to the florid; his eyes were blue and remark- 
ably far apart. A profusion of hair covered the forehead. He 
was scrupulously neat in his appearance; and, although he habit- 
ually left his tent early, he was well dressed. 

Time 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 289 

lO 

Responding to the impulse of habit, Josephus spoke as of old. 
The others listened attentively but in grim and contemptuous 
silence. He spoke at length, continuously, persistently, and 
ingratiatingly. Finally exhausted through loss of strength he 
hesitated. As always happens in such exigencies, he was lost. 

Time 

II 

The attractions of the American prairies as well as of the 
alluvial deposits of Egypt have been overcome by the azure skies 
of Italy and the antiquities of Roman architecture. My delight 
in the antique and my fondness for architectural and archaeo- 
logical studies verge on fanaticism. 

Time 

12 

The hypotheses concerning physical phenomena formulated 
by the early philosophers proved to be inconsistent and in general 
not universally applicable. Before relatively accurate principles 
could be established, physicists, mathematicians, and statisti- 
cians had to combine forces and work arduously. 

Time 

SUPPLEMENTARY SILENT READING TESTS 

As has been indicated, the preceding tests may not give 
sufhcient data for a diagnosis. This part of the chapter gives 
additional tests which may be used as the occasion demands. 
A statement immediately before each test gives its purpose and 
the type of pupil to whom it may be given. 

STANDARDIZED SILENT READING TEST 

Devised by Daniel Starch 

The purpose of this test is to determine the child's rate of 
reading and his ability to comprehend short selections of varying 



290 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

difficulty as indicated by his ability to reproduce the selections 
read. It may be given to those pupils whose silent reading 
ability, in the opinion of the teacher, has not been adequately 
tested by the Monroe tests. The response here involves 
reproduction. This may place certain children at an advantage 
and others at a disadvantage. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Follow the same general directions for putting the child 
at ease, and for the preliminary features of the test. 

2. The same general directions for keeping time may be 
followed as in the oral test. Allow just 30 seconds. Have the 
child mark the word where he is reading when time is called. 

3. Notice for vocalization as before. 

4. Have the pupil attempt three selections. A third grade 
pupil may try selections one, three, and five. A fourth grade 
pupil should try selections two, four and six. This general plan 
may be followed for any pupil. Space is provided in the rec 
ord blank for only one selection. This is the selection which 
has the same number as the school grade of the child. 

5. Have the pupil fill in the blanks for age, grade, etc. 

6. Score and record the results according to directions on 
pages 334 and 342. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation of Results 

The following questions may now be considered: 

1. Did the pupil write much which is wrong? If so, it indi- 
cates that the apperceptive factor plays a large part in his read- 
ing. Try the Trabue Language Test. 

2. Did the pupil write very little? If so, it indicates a 
language difficulty. Try the Direction Test, 

3. See preceding tests for other suggestions. 

4. Do the results of this test differ essentially from the 
results obtained by the Monroe Test? If so, it may indicate 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 291 

lliat the pupil either did not understand the Monroe Test or 
that he is be.ter at one type of reading than another. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

On the following pages are some selections which you are to 
read silently. After you have read a selection, turn over the 
page and write in your own words what you remember of the 
passage. You will be graded both on what you remember and 
on the rate at which you read. Your teacher will tell you which 
selection to read. 

Name Grade Age 

Date. 



Once there was a little girl who lived with her mother. 

They were very poor. 

Sometimes they had no supper. 

Then they went to bed hungry. 

One day the little girl went into the woods. 

She wanted sticks for the fire. 

She was so hungry and sad ! 

"Oh, I wish I had some sweet porridge!" she said. 

"I wish I had a pot full for mother and me. We 
could eat it all up." 

Just then she saw an old woman with a little black 
pot. 

She said, "Little girl, why are you so sad?" 

"I am hungry," said the little girl. 

2 

Betty lived in the South, long, long ago. She was 
only ten years old, but she liked to help her mother. 



292 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND ISIETHODS 

She had learned to do many things. She could knit 
and sew and spin ; but best of all she liked to cook. 

One day Bett}' was alone at home because her father 
and mother and brother had gone to town to see a 
wonderful sight. 

The great George Washington was visiting the South. 
He was going from town to town, riding in a great 
white coach trimmed with shining gold. It had leather 
curtains, and soft cushions. Four milk-white horses 
drew it along the road. 

Four horsemen rode ahead of the coach to clear the 
way and four others rode behind it. They were all 
dressed in white and gold. 



Little Abe hurried home as fast as his feet could carry 
him. Perhaps if he had worn stockings and shoes like yours 
he could have run faster. But, instead, he wore deerskin 
leggins and clumsy moccasins of bear skin that his mother 
had made for him. 

Such a funny little figure as he was, hurrying along across 
the rough fields! His suit was made of war homespun 
cloth. His cap was made of coon skin, and the tail of the 
coon hung behind him, like a furry tassel. 

But if you could have looked into the honest, twinkling 
blue eyes of this Kttle lad of long ago, you would have liked 
him at once. 

In one hand little Abe held something very precious. 
It was only a book, but little Abe thought more of that 
book than he would have thought of gold or precious stones. 

You cannot know just what that book meant to Httle Abe, 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 293 

unless you are very fond of reading. Think how it would 
be to see no books except two or three old ones that you had 
read over and over until you knew them by heart ! 

4 

The red squirrel usually waked me in the dawn, running 
over the roof and up and down the sides of the house, as if 
sent out of the woods for this very purpose. 

In the course of the winter I threw out half a bushel of 
ears of sweet corn onto the snow crust by my door, and was 
amused by watching the motions of the various animals 
which were baited by it. All day long the red squirrels 
came and went, and afforded me much entertainment by 
their maneuvers. 

One would approach, at first, warily through the scrub- 
oaks, running over the snow crust by fits and starts like a 
leaf blown by the wind. Now he would go a few paces 
this way, with wonderful speed, making haste with his 
' trotters," as if it were for a wager; and now as many 
paces that way, but never getting on more than half a rod 
at a time. 

Then suddenly he would pause with a ludicrous expression 
and a somerset, as if all eyes in the universe were fixed on 
him. Then, before you could say Jack Robinson, he would 
be in the top of a young pitch-pine winding up his clock and 
talking to all the universe at the same time. 

5 
Once upon a time, there lived a very rich man, and a king 
besides, whose name was Midas; and he had a little daughter 
whom nobody but myself ever heard of, and whose name I either 
never knew, or have entirely forgotten. So, because I love odd 
names for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold. 



294 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

This King Midas was fonder of gold than anything else in the 
world. He valued his royal crown chiefly because it was com- 
posed of that precious metal. If he loved anything better, or 
half so well, it was the one little maiden who played so merrily 
around her father's footstool. But the more Midas loved his 
daughter, the more did he desire and seek for wealth. He 
thought, foolish man! that the best thing he could possibly do 
for his dear child would be to give her the immensest pile of yel- 
low, glistening coin, that had ever been heaped together since 
the world was made. Thus, he gave all his thoughts and all his 
time to this one purpose. If ever he happened to gaze for an 
instant at the gold-tinted clouds of sunset, he wished that they 
were real gold, and that they could be squeezed safely into his 
strong box. When little Marygold ran to meet him, with a 
bunch of buttercups and dandelions, he used to say, "Poh, poh, 
child! If these flowers were as golden as they look, they would 
be worth the plucking!" 

And yet, in his earlier days, before he was so entirely pos- 
sessed of this insane desire for riches. King Midas had shown a 
great taste for flowers. 



In a secluded and mountainous part of Styria there was in old 
time a valley of the most surprising and luxuriant fertility. It 
was surrounded on all sides by steep and rocky mountains, ris- 
ing into peaks which were always covered with snow, and from 
which a number of torrents descended in constant cataracts. 
One of these fell westward over the face of a crag so high that, 
when the sun had set to everything else, and all below was dark- 
ness, his beams still shone full upon this waterfall, so that it 
looked like a shower of gold. It was, therefore, called by the 
people of the neighborhood, the Golden River. It was strange 
that none of these streams fell into the valley itself. They all 
descended on the other side of the mountains, and wound away 
through broad plains and past populous cities. But the clouds 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 295 

were drawn so constantly to the snowy hills, and rested so softly 
in the circular hollow, that in time of drought and heat, when 
all the country round was burnt up, there was still rain in the 
little valley; and its crops were so heavy and its hay so high, 
and its apples so red, and its grapes so blue, and its wine so 
rich, and its honey so sweet, that it was a marvel to everyone 
who beheld it, and was commonly called the Treasure 
Valley. 

The whole of this little valley belonged to three brothers 
called Schwartz, Hans, and Gliick. Schwartz and Hans, the 
two elder brothers, were very ugly men, with overhanging eye- 
brows and small dull eyes. 

7 

Captain John Hull was the mint-master of Massachusetts, and 
coined all the money that was made there. This was a new line 
of business, for in the earlier days of the colony the current 
coinage consisted of gold and silver money of England, 
Portugal, and Spain. These coins being scarce, the people 
were often forced to barter their commodities instead of 
selling them. 

For instance, if a man wanted to buy a coat, he perhaps ex- 
changed a bear skin for it. If he wished for a barrel of molasses, 
he might purchase it with a pile of pine boards. Musket-bullets 
were used instead of farthings. The Indians had a sort of 
money called wampum, which was made of clam-shells, and this 
strange sort of specie was likewise taken in payment of debts by 
the English settlers. Bank-bills had never been heard of. 
There was not money enough of any kind, in many parts of the 
country, to pay the salaries of the ministers, so that they some- 
times had to take quintals of fish, bushels of corn, or cords of 
wood instead of silver or gold. 

As the people grew more numerous and their trade one with 
another increased, the want of current money was still more 
sensibly felt. To supply the demand the general court passed 



296 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

a law for establishing a coinage of shillings, sixpences, and three- 
pences. Captain John Hull was appointed to manufacture this 
money, and was to have about one shilling out of every twenty 
to pay him for the trouble of making them. 



The years went on, and Ernest ceased to be a boy. He had 
grown to be a young man now. He attracted little notice from 
the other inhabitants of the valley; for they saw nothing re- 
markable in his way of life, save that, when the labor of the day 
was over he still loved to go apart and gaze and meditate upon 
the Great Stone Face. According to their idea of the matter 
it was a folly, indeed, but pardonable, inasmuch as Ernest was 
industrious, kind, and neighborly, and neglected no duty for 
the sake of indulging this idle habit. They knew not that the 
Great Stone Face had become a teacher to him, and that the 
sentiment which was expressed in it would enlarge the young 
man's heart, and fill it with wider and deeper sympathies than 
other hearts. They knew noL that thence would come a better 
wisdom than could be learned from books, and a better life 
than could be molded on the defaced example of other human 
lives. Neither did Ernest know that the thoughts and affec- 
tions which came to him so naturally, in the fields and at the 
fireside, and wherever he communed with himself, were of a 
higher tone than those which all men shared with him. 

By this time poor Mr. Gathergold was dead and buried; and 
the oddest part of the matter was, that his wealth, which was 
the body and spirit of his existence, had disappeared before 
his death, leaving nothing of him but a living skeleton, cov- 
ered over with a wrinkled, yellow skin. Since the melting 
away of his gold, it had been very generally conceded that 
there was no such striking resemblance, after all, betwixt the 
ignoble features of the ruined merchant and that majestic face 
upon the mountainside. 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 297 

SPEED TEST 

This test is to determine the effect which is produced when 
a maximum effort is put into reading. It will be of value for 
those pupils who are slow and for those who are thought to work 
with little effort. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Follow the same general directions for putting the child 
at ease, and for other preliminary features of the test. 

2. The same general directions for keeping time may be fol- 
lowed as in the oral test. Make a record of the time, first upon 
note paper and later transfer it to the place provided upon the 
test sheet in the hands of the child. It may also be of value to 
keep time for the period which is used in writing. 

3. Notice for vocalization as before. 

4. Only three selections are provided. Use your own judg- 
ment as to the number which the child can read with any degree 
of success. 

5. If this test is used, it will be necessary to give the Starch 
Test also, so that a more direct comparison can be made than 
in the case of the Monroe Test. 

6. See directions for scoring and recording results on pages 
334 and 342. 

Suggestions for Interpretation 

1. Do the results indicate an increase in rate and a decrease 
in comprehension? If so, the pupil was probably reading to 
his limit in the other tests. 

2. Do the results indicate an increase in both rate and com- 
prehension? If so, the pupil evidently did not work up to his 
limit in the preceding tests. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

On the following pages are some selections which you are 
to read silently. They are to be readjW5/ as rapidly as you can 



298 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

read. You will be expected to write the story of the selection 
but remember that the emphasis is on how rapidly you can read. 
After you have read a selection turn over the page and write in 
your own words what you remember of the passage. 

Speed I 

Name Grade Age 

Date 

A man and a lion once traveled together. Each one 
boasted of his own strength, as if he were greater than the 
other. As they were disputing, they passed a stone statue, 
which stood near the road. It represented a lion killed by 
a man. 

"See," said the man, "how strong we men are! Even the 
king of beasts must yield to us." 

"That sounds very well," replied the lion. "Was it a 
Hon who made the statue, or a man? Perhaps we would 
have told a different story." 

There are two sides to everything. 
Reading time Writing time 

SpeeI) II 

I believe we can nowhere find a better type of a perfectly free 
creature than in the common house fly. Nor free only, but 
brave; and irreverent to a degree which I think no human 
republican could by any philosophy exalt himself to. There is 
no courtesy in him; he does not care whether it is king or clown 
whom he teases; and in every step of his swift mechanical 
march, and in every pause of his resolute observation, there is 
one and the same expression of perfect egotism, perfect inde- 
pendence and self-confidence, and conviction of the world's 
having been made for flies. 
Reading time Writing time 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 299 

Speed III 

Nitetis, a beautiful young princess, the daughter of Amasis, 
king of Egypt, had, for political reasons, been betrothed to 
Cambyses, king of the Medes and Persians, and most powerful 
monarch of his time. After bidding a final adieu to her parents 
and friends and all that her heart held dear, she had started 
with a briUiant retinue of followers on the long journey to Baby- 
lon, the home of her intended husband. She was accompanied 
by her father's friend Croesus, the old and wealthy king of 
Lydia, who acted in the capacity both of tutor and 
guardian; and everything was done that power or skill 
could devise to make the journey by sea and land dehghtful 
and easy. 

Reading time " Writing time 

TEST IN OUTLINING 

The purpose of this test is to determine the child's ability 
to comprehend a passage as indicated by the outlining of it. 
The test requires little language ability, but there must be a 
rather careful evaluation of the various thoughts in the passage. 
It will be of value in those cases in which the Monroe and 
Starch Tests seem to be inadequate or where the examiner thinks 
that language may be a hindrance in the responses of the child. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Follow the same general directions for putting the child 
at ease and for other preliminary features of the test. 

2. The same general directions for keeping time may be fol- 
lowed as in the oral test. Make a record of the time first upon 
note paper and later transfer it to the place provided upon the 
test sheet. It may also be of value to keep time for the period 
which is used in writing. 

3. Notice for vocalization as before. 



300 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

4. Only three selections are provided. Use selection one for 
grades four and five, selection two for grades six and seven, and 
selection three for grade eight. 

5. Score and record the results according to the directions 
on pages 334 and 342. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation 

1. Do the results show a lack of ability to evaluate the 
different parts of the thought? If so, try the Trabue Language 
Test. 

2. Do the results correspond to those of either the Monroe 
or Starch tests? If much better, it may mean the presence of a 
language difficulty. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

You are to read the next selection silently. Read each one 
once, but read carefully. You will be expected to write out what 
you consider to be the main points in each selection. 

Name Grade Age 

Date. 

Outline I 

The blood carries food for the body. After leather, yarn, 
and cloth are manufactured, they are not stored away and 
locked up in factories, but are sent out over the country by 
railroads, canals, and rivers to cities, towns, and villages, so 
that the people who need them can find and use them. 

In the same way, after our food is manufactured into blood, 
it does not remain in the factory, but is sent out to all parts of 
the body, so that it can be used in building it up and repairing it. 

Instead of railroads, canals, and rivers, we have running 
through our bodies a system of little tubes; and instead of rail- 
road trains and canal boats, we have the warm, red blood flowing 
through these tubes, loaded with material the body needs to 
build it up. In your chest is the heart, a muscular pump 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 301 

which works without ceasing day and night as long as you Hve 
and forces the blood through all of the blood tubes, even to the 
very tips of your fingers and toes. 

Reading time Writing time 

Outline II 

We started off about noon; a goodly band of some eight or 
nine striplings, with two or three hammers, and a few pence 
among us, and no need to be home before dusk. An October 
sun shone merrily out upon us; the fields, bared of their leaves, 
had begun to be again laid under the plow, and long lines of rich 
brown loam alternated with bands of yellow stubble, up and 
down which toiled many a team of steaming horses. The neigh- 
boring woods, gorgeous in their tints of green, gold, and russet, 
sent forth clouds of rooks, whose noisy jangle, borne onward by 
the breeze, and mingling with the drone of the bee and the carol 
of the lark, grew mellow in the distance, as the cadence of a far- 
off hymn. We were too young to analyze the landscape, but 
not too young to find in every feature of it the intensest enjoy- 
ment. Moreover, our path lay through a district rich in historic 
associations. 

Reading time. Writing time 

Outline III 

The simplest attempts to form monopolies consist of agree- 
ments between a number of producers to limit the product, to 
maintain fixed prices; or to appoint common selling-agents. 
These agreements are seldom lived up to, and mutual suspicion 
among the members generally breaks them up. Yet a "friendly 
agreement" between four large beef packers in Chicago has 
sufficed to build up a practical monopoly of the cattle and meat 
business of the United States. In other cases, where the number 
of parties to the agreement has been small, this form of combina- 
tion has created virtual monopolies. A second and more formal 



302 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

organization is the "pool." This is estabhshed by a formal 
agreement to maintain prices, in which the parties agree to 
divide the territory, to divide the business, or to divide the 
earnings. Pools have been comn on in the railroad business 
but have existed elsewhere, as in cases where nominally com- 
peting gas companies agree to serve separate districts in a city, 
and not to encroach upon each other's territory. Pools have 
often enough been broken up by the mutual distrust of the mem- 
bers; for, if one party to the pooling agreement breaks it while 
the others keep their promises, he may make large profits. 

Reading time Writing time 

DIRECTION TEST 
Devised by Woodworth and Wells 

This test is to determine the child's ability to comprehend 
simple directions. It eliminates almost entirely the language 
element in the response and is of very great value where language 
seems to make the response difficult for the child. Success in 
this test when there has been a failure in other tests may indicate 
that the child lacks ability to express himself in language. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Follow the same general directions for putting the child 
at ease, place for testing, etc. 

2. Notice for vocalization as before. 

3. Keep a record of the time required for the writing. 

4. Score and record the results according to directions on 
pages 335 and 343. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

On the next sheet you are told to do a number of very simple 
things. Do these just as rapidly as you can. The emphasis is 
upon speed. 

Name Grade. Age , . 

Date 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 303 

Cross out the g in tiger 
Write 2 between the two dots: • • ■ 
How many feet make a yard ? 
Write + over the longest word: It rained yesterday. 

Put a dot below this line: 

Write the sum of these numbers: ^ 

Make a boy's name by adding one letter to Joh 

Make a cross in the circle: Z A v ' \ | 

What comes next after D in the alphabet ? 

Write 7 in the largest square: LJ I I LJ 

Cross out the blackest letter in TEXAS. 

Write g on the egg-shaped figure: C ) \y CHP 

Make two dots between these hnes : 

Put the sign = where it belongs: 3 + 2 5, 

Write here the middle letter of get. 



Put a nose on tins face: . / 

Add a cross and make these rows equal : X X X X 



O 

equal : X 

o 



Put a dot in the circle, below the center; 
Draw a line around the three dots: 
Cross out the last word in this sentence. 



304 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

NEWSPAPER TEST 

This is a test to determine the child's ability in skimming. 
It is of interest as a speed test, or it may be of value in those 
cases where it is thought that the pupil lacks ability to express 
himself in language. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Select an article from some newspaper of six or eight 
pages. Insert the name of the article in the blank space left in 
the directions to the pupil. 

2. Note the time required to find the article. Record this 
in the proper place in the summary sheet. 

3. In order to have a basis for comparison give the same test 
to two or three bright children in the same grade as that of the 
one whom you are studying. 

4. Score and record results according to directions on pages 
336 and 346. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

For your next work you will be given a newspaper. Some 

place in this paper there is a short article entitled . 

You are expected to find this article as quickly as possible. 

STANDARDIZED LANGUAGE TESTS 
Devised by M. R. T abue 

This test is given for the purpose of determining the child's 
ability to deal with language relations. It is of interest in those 
cases where it is thought that the child has difhculty in expressing 
himself by means of written language or where it is desired to 
determine the relation between the abihty required in this test 
and the ability to comprehend. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1, Allow just seven minutes. 

2. Watch the child's method of work. 



SILENT AND ORAL READING TESTS 305 

3. Score and record results according to directions on pages 
336 and 343. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

On the page which follows there is a reading selection with a 
part of the words left out. You are to put in words which will 
make the selection have good sense. An example is given here. 
The sentence The boy can — ■ — has a word left out where 
the line is. If the word run is put in there, the sentence makes 
good sense. You are to do the same thing in the selection which 
follows. Remember one word for each line. You will be allowed 
seven minutes. 

Name Grade Age 

Date 

I. We like good boys girls. 

6. The is barking at the cat. 

3. The stars and the will shine to-night. 

22. Time often more valuable money. 

23. The poor baby as if it were sick. 

31. She if she will. 

35. Brothers and sisters always to help 

other and should quarrel. 

38. weather usually a good effect one's 

spirits. 

48. It is very annoying to tooth-ache, 

often comes at the most time imaginable. 

54. To friends is always the it takes. 

STANDARDIZED TESTS FOR VISUAL VOCABULARY 
Devised by E. L. Thorndike 

This test is given in order to determine the pupil's ability in 
the recognition of isolated words. It is of interest in those 
cases where preceding results indicate a lack of vocabulary. 



306 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Allow the pupil all the time that he may desire. This 
test may well be taken during the regular school work. 

2. Watch the pupil's method of work. 

3. Score and record results according to directions on pages 
340 and 343. 



Name Grade Age. 

Date 



Directions to the Pupil: 

Write the letter F under every word that means a flower. 

Write the letter A under every word that means an animal. 

Write the letter N under every word that means a hoy's name. 

Write the letter G under every word that means a game. 

Write the letter B under every word that means a book. 

Write the letter T under every word like now or then that means some- 
thing to do with time. 

Write the word GOOD under every word that means something good to 
be or do. 

Write the word BAD under every word that means something bad to bi- 
or do. 

4. Camel, samuel, kind, lily, cruel 

5. cowardly, dominoes, kangaroo, pansy, tennis 

6. during, generous, later, modest, rhinoceros 

7. claude, courteous, isaiah, merciful, reasonable 

8. chrysanthemum, considerate, lynx, prevaricate, reuben 

9. ezra, ichabod, ledger, parchesi, preceding 
10. crocus, dahlia, jonquil, opossum, poltroon 

10. begonia, equitable, pretentious, renegade, reprobate 

11. armadillo, iguana, philanthropic 



CHAPTER XVII 

PERCEPTION TESTS 

This chapter presents certain tests which relate to the span 
of perception. They are of interest in those cases where there 
is a slow rate of reading or in those cases where the rate of reading 
is too rapid for efl5ciency. 

SHORT-EXPOSURE TESTS 

The results for this test may be procured by means of a simple 
form of tachistiscope. The working drawings of one form of 
this apparatus are shown on page 309. This form of the appara- 
tus may be made in any manual training shop or by a local car- 
penter. The exposure is made by the falling of plate A. This has 
in it an opening the same size as that of B. The material to be 
exposed is placed in the holder immediately back of the opening 
B, and as the plate A drops, the material can be seen by the sub- 
ject during the time that the opening in A passes the opening B. 

The material to be exposed can be prepared upon cards (3x5) 
by means of a typewriter. Only one sentence should be placed 
upon each card. 

Directions for Giving the Tests 

In* carrying out the experiment, the child should be com- 
fortably seated, the lighting should be good, and a few pre- 
liminary exposures should be made in order to accustom the 
subject to the conditions of the experiment. 

When everything is ready, say "Ready." The pupil then 
focuses his eyes upon the plate at the point where the material 
will appear. In about the time which it takes to count "one," 
"two" pull the trigger which allows the plate to fall. The child 

307 



308 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

will then write down what has been seen, or, better, an assistant 
may record the words reported by the subject. 

Material for Perception Tests 



I. 


Pick flowers. 


2. 


The wind sings. 


3- 


I will help you find it. 


4- 


There comes a cloud. 


5- 


The trees like the singing wind. 


6. 


The ark is ready. 


7- 


They will keep step as they march. 


8. 


One of my chicks is lost. 


9- 


I love the little bird. 


lO. 


Swim and play. 


II. 


Here come two birds. 


12. 


One day the two woodmen sat down, 


13- 


Come again. 


14. 


They bow to the wind. 


15- 


Bake her cake. 


16. 


Betty loves the gray kitten. 


17- 


They sang. 


18. 


Two little birds flew into the tree. 



See directions on page 340 for scoring and recording results. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation 

1. Is the rate of silent reading slow and the span of percep- 
tion small? If so, the difficulty is probably a fundamental one. 
Try the voice-eye separation test. 

2. Is the rate of silent reading slow and the span of perception 
average or above? If so, there are several possibilities. The 
child may be overcareful or he may not be able to make inter- 
pretations of the language units in rapid succession, as is required 
in the reading process, or he may not put sufficient effort into the 
work. 



PERCEPTION TESTS 



309 



3. Is the rate of silent reading fast, and the span of percep- 
tion small? If so, the child may be a subjective reader, or he 
may read in a careless and indifferent manner. 

4. Does the child get many of the words wrong? If so, he 
probably uses the synthetic approach to language in too great 
a degree. Analysis needs to be emphasized. 

5. Does the child fail to get many of the sentences? If so 
he probably uses the analytic approach to language in too great 
a degree. 



2' H ^^i^ 



■fa 



^J* % 



y 





fko^rl//^^ ^^/?/^ y/eiA/ J/o^ l//ri^ 



-/o^Ar^ 



3ca/e /f=t* 



Top l/z^'iA/ 



Fig. 20 

Showing Working Drawings for One Form of Short-exposure Apparatus 



310 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

THE VOICE-EYE SEPARATION TEST 

This test gives data concerning the span of perception in oral 
reading. It is of interest in those cases where the rate of reading 
is slow. The results are obtained by placing a card over the read- 
ing matter at certain predetermined points. The subject should 
proceed with the reading as far as possible after the card is in 
place. The following list gives the predetermined words for 
each of the eight selections which follow. These words come at 
the beginning of a line in each case. 

Selection i. up 

Selection 2. played, in line 4 

Selection 3. work 

Selection 4. had, in seventh line 

Selection 5. rest 

Selection 6. fell 

Selection 7. becomes, at beginning of seventh line 

Selection 8. exceeded 

Directions for Giving Test 

1. Have the child seated comfortably. Let him read the 
first selection and just as he begins to speak the word "up," 
place the card over the selection. The pupil should repeat as 
many words as possible beyond the word "up." It is an excel- 
lent practice to have an assistant record the words repeated 
by the pupil. If no assistant is available, the child may record 
his own results, or the recording may be done by the examiner. 

2. Allow the child to read as many of the selections as he is 
able to. 

3. See directions on page 340 for scoring and recording 
results. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation 

I. If the rate of reading is slow and the results of this test 
indicate a small span of perception, there are again several 
possibilities. There may be a lack of knowledge of words or of 



PERCEPTION TESTS 311 

language relations. If this is thought to be true, try the vocabu- 
lary test and the Trabue Language Test. Results as indicated 
above may also give evidence that the span is short as a result of 
training or as a result of hereditary factors. 

2. If the rate of reading is slow and the results of this test 
indicate a long span of perception, there may be inability to use 
in the rapid process of reading the entire span of perception. 

3. If a considerable amount of incorrect material is reported, 
the apperceptive processes may be too active or it may be that 
the child uses the synthetic approach to language. 

4. Comparisons between the results of this test and those 
of the preceding test will be of interest. 

. Material for Voice-Eye Separation 
Test 



I'll make a big scarecrow and stand it 
up in the cherry tree. That will do it. 
I'll have an old coat on that scarecrow 
and an old hat on its head. They will 
make it look like a man, and that will 
scare the robins. 



Biddy Black's children always did as 
they were told, and they never forgot. 
No, Biddy Black's children never forgot. 
What fun the soft, fat, fluffy chickens 
had! They ran and played and ran and 
played all day. They ate the bugs and 
seeds that Biddy found. Oh, they played 
and ate bugs and seeds all day ! 



312 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

3 

Whenever the cores gave out, 
back to the city went Appleseed John to 
work for more. As he went from house to 
house, singing and working, some called 
him lazy, while others said he was only 
crazy. But on and on he went, planting 
the appleseeds far and wide over hill- 
side and prairie. Old Appleseed John 
knew that in after years great trees 

4 
Longfellow had more friends among 
children than he could count. They used 
to write to him from all over the land 
and send him little gifts. No matter how 
busy he was, the poet had time to send 
some httle token in return. Longfellow 
had five children of his own whom he 
loved most dearly. He tells about them 
in this letter to his little friend. 

5 
But great allowance should be given to 
a king who lived wholly secluded from the 
rest of the world, and must, therefore, be 
altogether unacquainted with the manners 
and customs that must prevail in other 
nations ; the want of which knowledge will 
ever produce many prejudices, and a cer- 
tain narrowness of thinking, from which 
we, and the politer countries of Europe, 



PERCEPTION TESTS 313 



A portion of the Grecian host broke up 
camp and set sail as if they were home- 
ward bound; but, once out of sight, they 
anchored their ships behind a neighbor- 
ing island. The rest of the army then 
fell to work upon the great image of a 
horse. They built it of wood, fitted 
and carved, and with a door so cunningly 
concealed that none might notice it. 

7 
Thus, gentlemen, we see that a 
man's country is not an area of land, of 
mountains, rivers, and woods, but it is 
a principle; and patriotism is loyalty 
to that principle. In poetic minds and 
in popular enthusiasm this feehng be- 
comes closely associated with the soil 
and the symbols of the country. But the 
secret sanctification of the soil and 

8 

Large piles of brush lay scattered 
about the clearing, and a wary and aged 
squaw was occupied in firing as many as 
might serve to light the coming exhibi- 
tion. As the flame arose, its power 
exceeded that of the parting day, and 
assisted to render objects at the same 
time more distinct and more hideous. The 
whole scene formed a striking picture. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

TESTS AND OBSERVATIONS IN THE MOTOR PROCESSES 

It is the purpose of this chapter to present various types of 
tests and observations in the motor processes involved in reading. 
Certain of these tests and observations give data as to the rate 
of reading; others show the adjustment of the child to the read- 
ing process; and still others may be used in various ways. The 
same general plan for presenting the material will be followed 
as in the preceding chapters. Each of the tests should be studied 
carefully, and if its general bearing is not understood, the reader 
should refer to the chapter in Part I where the test, along with 
its results, is discussed. 

TESTS FOR RATE OF VOCALIZATION 
The Pronunciation Test 

This test is given for the purpose of determining the rate at 
which a child can pronounce a list of familiar words. It involves 
both a limited amount of interpretation and the rate at which 
the vocal muscles react. It is of value where the rate of reading 
is slow. 

Directions for Giving the Test 

1. Have the child pronounce as rapidly as possible the fol- 
lowing lists of words. Note that the same words are used three 
times, but in a different order. 

2. Time the test by the "Ready — Begin" method. Take 
the time for each list. 

3. Record the results in the form shown on page 344. 

4. If the child hesitates on a word, pronounce it for hira and 
let him proceed. 

5. Note the errors in pronunciation. 

314 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 



315 



Suggestions upon Interpretation 

1, If the rate on this test is slow and the rate of reading is 
slow, there may be a lack of knowledge of words. Try the 
vocabulary test. 

2. If the rate upon this test is rapid and the rate of reading 
is slow, the slowness in reading is evidently caused by other 
factors than a knowledge of isolated words. 



Directions to the Pupil: 
Pronounce these words just as raptdly as you can; 



boy 


king 


wagon 


dog 


nest 


house 


home 


general 


snow 


mouse 


before 


spirit 


milk 


strut 


wind 


king 


wagon 


strut 


found 


milk 


feast 


woods 


stroll 


spear 


stroll 


region 


frost 


might 


spoke 


before 


nest 


spear 


deHght 


maple 


snow 


spoke 


reason 


boy 


early 


region 


night 


body 


crown 


dog 


general 


general 


reason 


crown 


body 


frost 


region 


early 


house 


reason 


spoke 


found 


maple 


dehght 


maple 


nest 


before 


home 


night 


frost 


early 


stroll 



316 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



spear 


wind 


woods 


feast 


delight 


found 


strut 


mouse 


king 


wind 


crown 


milk 


spirit 


feast 


mouse 


snow 


body 


home 


house 


woods 


dog 


wagon 


spirit 


boy 



THE COUNTING TEST 

This test is given for the purpose of determining the rate at 
which the vocal muscles function. It is of interest in those cases 
where the oral rate is slow. 

Directions for Giving Test 

1. The test consists in having the child count repeatedly as 
fast as possible from one to ten for iifteen seconds. 

2. A record of the counting may be made by means of the 
marks shown below, as follows: When the child says "ten" the 
first time place a dot over the first vertical mark; continue this 
until the child says "ten" for the fifth time, when a diagonal 
Hne may be drawn across the first four vertical lines. The 
record for the counting of fifty would appear thus: /yi^ This 
may be continued until the time is up. For convenience draw 
a series of lines as shown below on note paper. 

//// //// //// //// //// 

3. Record the results in their proper place on page 344. 

Suggestions on Interpretation 

I. If the rate in this test is slow and the rate of oral reading 
is slow, the cause of the slow reading is due in a measure to slow 
muscular reactions. 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 317 

2. If the results of this test indicate rapid muscular reaction 
and the rate of oral reading is slow, then the slowness in the 
reading process is caused by other factors than slow muscular 
reaction. 

Directions to the Pupil: 

The next work is very simple and very easy. You are to count 
as rapidly as you can for 30 seconds as follows: i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
7, 8, 9, 10; I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; etc. 

OBSERVATIONS ON VOCALIZATION IN SILENT 

READING 

This type of observation gives data which reveal in some cases 

the cause of slow silent reading. It may also point out children 

for whom the motor phases of their mental operations are of 

decided importance. 

Directions for Making the Observations 

1. The observations upon this point can be made during 
the silent reading tests. Look for the following points: 

a. Is the vocalization such as to be called a whisper? 

b. Does it involve only slight movements of the hps? 

c. Does it involve only slight movements of the larynx? 

d. Is it entirely imperceptible? 

e. A general estimate may be given in the following terms: 
none, little, much. 

2. Record this general estimate on the summary sheet, 
page 346. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation 

I. If the rate of silent reading is slow and the amount of 
vocalization is large, the slow reading is probably caused in part 
by the presence of the vocalization. In some cases there will 
be a considerable amount of vocalization, and yet the rate of 
reading will be rapid. Other causes must then be sought for the 
slow rate. Try the perception tests. 



318 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

2. If there is much vocalization present in the reading and 
the child is motor in the other phases of his work, it probably 
means that the vocalization is somewhat essential to the inter- 
pretative processes. 

OBSERVATIONS UPON EXTRANEOUS MOVEMENTS 

This type of observation is made in order to determine the 
child's adjustment to the entire reading situation. 

Directions for Making Observations 

1. Watch for movements of the body which are entirely 
foreign to the reading activity. Such movements as jerking 
the head backward or forward would be classed as extraneous 
movements. Score this phase of reading as 

none, few, many. 

2. Insert the estimate on the summary sheet, page 346. 

Suggestions upon Interpretation 

1. The presence of such movements may mean a habit 
carried over from the early period of the child's reading. 

2. They may mean that the child has not progressed far 
enough in the formation of the reading habit so that the diffu- 
sion of nervous energy which usually accompanies early efforts 
at reading has disappeared. 

OBSERVATIONS UPON VOCAL MOVEMENTS 

This type of observation will indicate possible causes for diffi- 
culties in pronunciation in the analysis required by phonics. 

Directions for Making the Observations 

1. Does the pronunciation of the child have a nasal quality? 

2. Are sounds omitted from certain words? 

3. Are any sounds imperfectly made? 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 319 

4. Are there any physical imperfections which would cause 
the points noted above? 

5. On the basis of these observations determine a general 
estimate, as follows : 

poor, good, very good. 

6. Record this estimate in its proper place on the summary 
sheet, page 346. 

OBSERVATIONS OF BREATHING IN RELATION TO 
ORAL READING 

This type of observation is made in order to determine the 
child's adjustment to the requirements of oral reading. Poor 
coordinations of this type may point to causes for poor oral 
reading. 

Directions por Making the Observations 

1. The teacher will be able to make the observations upon 
this element of oral reading during the regular reading. Under 
other circumstances, have the child read any selection which is 
is not familiar and not too difficult. Look for the following 
points : 

a. Does breathing during reading seem to be a problem for 
the child? 

b. Is the greater movement in the upper chest or the abdo- 
men? 

c. Is the breathing deep or is it taken in gasps? 

d. Is the breathing regular? 

e. Is there any correspondence between the sense pauses and 
breathing pauses? 

2. On the basis of the above observations determine a general 
estimate as follows* 

poor, good, very good. 

3. Record this general estimate in its proper place on the 
summary sheet, page 346. 



320 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

OBSERVATIONS OF EYE-MOVEMENTS 

This type of observation is made for the purpose of obtaining 
data concerning the forward and regressive movements of the 
eyes. Such observations will be of interest in nearly every case 
where a difi&culty exists in learning to read, and will reveal in 
most cases more about the reading activity than any other single 
test or method of observation listed here. 

Directions for Making Observations 

1. The observations are made by means of a mirror. See 
page 176. For this purpose select a mirror 5x7 inches without 
a frame. Place the mirror on the left page and have the child 
read from the right page or vice-versa. Sit immediately in front 
of the child and the eye movements ma.y be easily observed. 

2. Three types of movements will be observed, (a) Long 
sweeps from the right to the left. These sweeps are the move- 
ments of the eye from the end of one line to the beginning of 
another, (b) Short jerks from the left to the right. These are the 
forward movements of the eye as it proceeds across the page. 
(c) Short jerks from right to left. These are backward or regres- 
sive movements. 

3. Passages are provided for both oral and silent reading. 
Use your own judgment as to whether records should be made 
for both types of reading. The number accompanying each of 
these selections corresponds to the grade for which the passage 
was selected. Have each child read the selection for his grade, 
the one immediately below, and the one immediately above. 
Accordingly, a pupil of the sixth grade will read passages 5, 6, 
and 7. 

4. Record the number of short forward movements and the 
short backward movements on the sheet shown on page 000. 
Record these first on note paper and then transfer them to the 
blank. 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 321 

5. Some practice will be required before the type of work 
can be done with accuracy. 

Suggestions on Interpretation 

After the results have been compiled, the following questions 
may be considered: 

1. Are there periods of confusion? If so, the child shows a 
fundamental lack in the knowledge of words. Try the vocabu- 
lary test. 

2. Is the number of pauses about the same in oral and silent 
reading? If so, the child may not be able to distinguish between 
the methods of interpretation required by the two types of 
reading. In cases of this kind there may also be a short span of 
perception. 

3. Is the number of regressive movements large? If so, the 
child may be overcareful or may lack in the fundamentals of 
the reading habit such as the knowledge of words and language 
relations. Try the vocabulary test or the Trabue Language 
Test. 

4. Is the number of pauses large both in oral and silent 
reading? If so, the span of perception may be at fault. Try the 
short-exposure experiment. 

5. Are the pauses very long? If so, there may be a funda- 
mental lack in the knowledge of words. Try the vocabulary 
test. In cases of this kind the assimilative process may be 
slow. 

6. Are the pauses very short? If so, this may be the cause 
of inaccurate reading. In cases of this type the apperceptive 
processes are usually too active. 

7. Record results on page 345. 



322 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

SELECTIONS TO BE USED IN THE OBSERVATIONS 
OF EYE-MOVEMENTS 

Silent Reading 

I 

The farmer is sowing the wheat. 
Shine, sun, shine brightly! 
Help the farmer's wheat to grow. 
Come, wind, and bring the rain! 
Fall, rain, fall softly! 
Help the farmer's wheat to grow. 
Many days of sun and rain 
will bring the farmer golden grain. 



Not far away, on a little hill, grew a spruce 
tree. The little bird hopped and rested, and 
fluttered and rested, and hopped again, till he 
came to the spruce tree. He was just about to 
sing to the spruce, when the tree said, — 

"You poor little bird, what is the trouble? 
Why are you here?" 

"I have broken my wing," answered the 
little bird. "I have been asking the trees to 
help me. But no one will shelter me." 

3 

Now, as the ball turns round, a little, and a 

little more, what is it that comes out of the 

dark and gleams in the light of the sun? It 

stretches wide as the ocean, and sparkles too; 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 323 

in some places, smooth as a pond; in others, 
rolHng as ocean waves. But it is not water 
that sparkles so. It is dry sand and rock we 
see. It is a desert, where streams are few, and 
few plants grow. 



The moon had disappeared, and snow was falling 
rapidly, and the sound of distant chimes reminded 
Davy that it must be past midnight, and that Christ- 
mas Day had come. Solomon's eyes were shining 
in the darkness like a pair of coach lamps; and, as 
Davy sat looking at them, a ruddy hght began to 
glow between them, and presently the figure of the 
Goblin appeared, dressed in scarlet, as when he had 
first come. The reddish light was shining through 
his stomach again, as though the coals had been 
fanned into hfe once more; and, as Davy gazed at 
him, it grew brighter and stronger and finally burst 

5 

There was another bird in the room, however, 
who knew what grasshoppers were good for. He 
was an orchard oriole; and, after looking on awhile, 
he came down and carried off the hopper to eat. 
The jay did not like to lose his plaything; he ran 
after the thief, and stood on the floor giving low 
cries and looking on while the oriole on a chair was 
eating the dead grasshopper. When the oriole hap- 
pened to drop it, Jakie — who had got a new idea 
what to do with grasshoppers — snatched it up and 
carried it under a chair and finished it. 



324 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



This uncounted multitude before me, and around 
me, proves the feeling which the occasion has ex- 
cited. These thousands of human faces, glowing 
with sympathy and joy, and, from the impulses of a 
common gratitude, turned reverently to heaven, in 
this spacious temple of the firmament, proclaim that 
the day, the place, and the purpose of our assembling 
have made a deep impression on our hearts. If, 
indeed, there be anything in local association fit 
to affect the mind of man, we need not strive to 
repress the emotions which agitate us here. We are 
among the sepulchres of our fathers. 

7 
I snatched a cutlass from the pile, and someone, 
at the same time snatching another, gave me a cut across 
the knuckles which I hardly felt. I dashed out of the door 
into the clear sunHght. Someone was close behind, I 
knew not whom. Right in front, the doctor was pursuing 
his assailant down the hill, and, just as my eyes fell 
upon him, beat down his guard, and sent him sprawling on 
his back, with a great slash across the face. 



On the lower step of this throne the champion was 
made to kneel down. Indeed his whole action, since the 
fight had ended, seemed rather to have been upon the impulse 
of those around him than from his own free will; and it 
was observed that he tottered as they guided him a second 
time across the lists. Rowena, descending from her 
station with a graceful and dignified step, was about to 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 325 

place the chaplet which she held in her hand upon the hehnet of 
the champion, when the marshals exclaimed with one voice, 
" It must not be thus — his head must be bare." The knight 
muttered faintly a few words, which were lost in the hollow 
of his hehnet, but their purport seemed to be a desire that 
his casque might not be removed. 

SELECTIONS TO BE USED IN THE OBSERVATIONS 
OF EYE-MOVEMENTS 

Oral Reading 



O birdie in the apple tree. 

Dear birdie, sing a song to me! 

You have a nest and four eggs too. 

Up where the wind is singing, "Oo-oo! " 

You sing songs to the mother bird 

The sweetest songs I ever heard. 

O birdie in the apple tree. 

Dear birdie, sing a song to me! 



"Let us be good to the trees that took 
care of the little bird," said the Frost King. 
"They keep their leaves to shelter him. They 
are to be ever green — green not in summer only, 
but in winter too." 

So the Frost King and North Wind were good 
to the spruce, the pine, and the juniper. These 
trees kept their leaves green all the winter, 
and they have kept their leaves green through 
every winter ever since. 



326 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

3 

In the morning he found two pairs of 
shoes ready made. He sold the two pairs and 
bought leather enough for four pairs. At 
night he left the leather cut out on the 
bench, as before; and in the morning there 
lay four pairs of shoes. 

Every night, for a long time, the shoe- 
maker cut out leather for four pairs of shoes; 
and every morning he found four pairs of shoes 
ready for him to sell. 

4 
This was so unexpected, and seemed so serious a 
matter, that Davy was much distressed, wondering what 
had become of his dear grandmother, and Mrs. Frump, 
the cook, and Mary Farine, the housemaid, and Solomon, 
the cat. However, before he had time to make any 
inquiries of the Goblin, his grandmother came dropping 
down through the air in her rocking-chair. She was 
quietly knitting, and her chair was gently rocking as 
she went by. Next came Mrs. Frump, with her apron 
quite full of kettles and pots, and then Mary Farine 
sitting on a step-ladder with the coal-scuttle in 
her lap. Solomon was nowhere to be seen. 

5 
Many things which Jakie did were very funny. 
For instance, he made it his business to clear up 
the room. When he had more food than he could eat 
at the moment, he did not leave it around, but put 
it away carefully, — not in the garbage pail, for 



TESTS FOR MOTOR PROCESSES 327 

that was not in the room, but in some safe nook 
where it did not offend the eye. Sometimes it was 
behind the tray in his cage, or among the books 
on the shelf. The places he Hked best were about 
me, — in the fold of a rufHe or the loop of a bow 
on my dress, and sometimes in the side of my ' 
slipper. The very choicest place of all was in my 
loosely bound hair. That of course I could not 
allow, and 

6 

While they stood talking two immense serpents 
rose out of the sea and made towards the camp. Some 
oi the people took flight, others were transfixed 
with terror; but all, near and far, watched this 
new omen. Rearing their crests, the serpents crossed 
the shore, swift, shining, terrible as a risen flood 
that descends upon a helpless town. Straight through 
the crowd they swept, and seized the priest Laocoon 
where he stood, with his two sons, and wrapped them 
all round and round in fearful coils. There was no 
chance of escape. Father and sons perished together; 
and when the monsters had devoured the three men, in- 
to the sea they slipped again, leaving no trace of the 
horror. 

7 
When I had first sallied from the door, the 
other mutineers had already been swarming up the 
palisade to make an end of us. One man, in a red 
night-cap, with his cutlass in his mouth, had even 
got upon the top and thrown a leg across. Well, 
so short had been the interval, that when I found 



328 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

my feet again all was in the same posture, the 
fellow with the red night-cap still half way over, 
another still just showing his head above the top 
of the stockade. And yet, in this breath of time, 
the fight was over, and the victory was ours. 

8 

To the surprise of all present, however, 
the knight thus preferred was nowhere to be found. 
He had left the lists immediately when the conflict 
ceased, and had been observed by some spectators to 
move down one of the forest glades with the same 
slow pace and listless and indifferent manner which 
had procured him the epithet of the Black Sluggard. 
After he had been summoned twice by sound of trumpet 
and proclamation of the heralds, it became necessary 
to name another to receive the honors which had been 
assigned to him. Prince John had now no farther excuse 
for resisting the claim of the Disinherited Knight, 
whom, therefore, he named the champion of the day. 



CHAPTER XIX 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 

This chapter is devoted to the directions which are necessary 
for scoring the various tests which have been given in the three 
chapters which immediately precede this. The instructions of 
the authors of the tests have been followed in every case as 
closely as possible. Some points not taken into account by the 
authors are considered here because of the requirements of 
diagnosis. 

ORAL AND SILENT READING TESTS 

Directions for Scoring Monroe's Silent Reading Test 

By W. S. Monroe 

1. Every paper is given two scores: a rate score and a comprehension 
score. The rate score has been so chosen that it represents the number of 
words read per minute when reading carefully, as in this test. The compre- 
hension score represents a measure of the pupil's ability to understand or 
comprehend what he reads. 

2. To find the rate score, find the sum of the rate values of all the exercises 
which the pupil has attempted. (The rate value is found at the left of the 
exercises.) If the pupil has omitted an exercise, include its value in the sum 
because the pupil probably read it. 

3. In finding the comprehension score every exercise is counted as either 
wholly right or wholly wrong. The correct answers are given below. Where 
the pupil's answer is not correct, cross out the comprehension value of the 
exercise. (The comprehension value is printed at the right of the exercise.) 

4. Add the comprehension values of the exercises answered correctly. 
This sum is the pupil's comprehension score. 

Correct Answers for the Exercises 

If the pupil is asked to underline a word, the word must be underlined and 
not have a circle drawn around it or a check mark placed after it, in order for 
the exercises to be counted as correct. If the pupil is asked to draw a line 

329 



330 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



around a word, the word must have a line drawn around it in or.^er for the 
answer to be counted as correct. 

In certain of the exercises, no directions are given for indicating the word 
and any kind of an indication, a hne under the word, a Hne around the word 
or a check mark is counted as correct. 



Test I- 

HoUow tree. 

Dame-schools. 

Red. 

A line under grandmother. 

Logs. 

In a sandhill, or sandhill. 

No. 

In the spring, or spring. 



Form I 
9 



ID. 
II. 
12. 

13- 
14. 

15- 
16. 



On the top of the roof, or on 

the roof. 
Hay. 

A line under carp. 
A line around unhappy. 
A line under low. 
" Croak,croak,"or" Croak " 
A line under foolish. 
A line under child. 



OU. 

Stars, or the stars. 

October. 

Shepherd. 

North America. 

A line around forest. 

Cross out ruler. 



Test II — Form I 
■ 8. One. 



9. A line under air. 

ID. A line under bleak. 

11. A line under brave. 

12. A line under lazy. 

13. Calmness. 

14. A line under downhearted. 



The preceding method of scoring comprehension as given by 
Monroe is valuable in that it gives the child's ability as com- 
pared with established norms. For the purposes at hand it may 
be advisable to go over this test a second time and score it in a 
more liberal fashion. In those instances where the child has 
misinterpreted directions but has got the meaning of the selec- 
tion, partial credit may be allowed. Usually there will not be 
large differences in the results of the two methods, but in a few 
cases the variation in the two scores may be sufficient to be of 
interest. Large differences of this type may indicate haste, 



DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 



331 



carelessness, or lack of ability to follow directions. The results 
of the scoring should be recorded in the place provided on 
page 341. 

In some instances an index of comprehension may prove to 
be of value. This means the relation of the number of selections 
attempted to the number which were answered correctly. This 
relation may be expressed either as a decimal or as a common 
fraction. 

Directions for Scoring Gray's Oral Reading Test 

By W. S. Gray 

I. Score the results for each paragraph through the use of the following 
table. The numbers in the left-hand column refer to the number of seconds 
required to read a paragraph. The mmibers in the horizontal line at the 
top of the table refer to the number of errors made in reading. The numbers 
in the horizontal line to the right of 40 mean that if a paragraph is read in 40 
or more seconds mth no errors a credit of 4 is given; with i error, a credit 
of 4; ^ith 2 errors, a credit of 3; with 3 errors, a credit of 2, etc. 



Seconds 



Errors 



7 or 

More 



40 or more 

30-39 

25-29 

20-24. . . . 
19 or less. 



To find the score for a given paragraph, note the time required to read it 
and the number of errors made. For illustration, paragraph i may be read 
by pupil A in 34 seconds with 3 errors. 

In the left-hand column of the table find the time unit which corresponds 
to 34 seconds. E\adenth' it is the time unit 30-39. 

Follow the horizontal line of numbers to the right of 30-39 to the column 
which represents 3 errors. The score indicated there is 2. 

Enter this score on the score sheet in the column for paragraph i opposite 
the reader's name. 

The score for each paragraph should be determined and entered in the 
same way. Make no entr}'' on the score sheet if the score is o. 



332 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



(a) Enter the total score for each paragraph in the column under "Score" 
in the following table: 



Paragraph 



Score X Value 



I 




2 


.... =; 


■3. . . 


.... K 


4 


.... ■; 


i; 


.... ■; 


6 


.... 1^ 


7 


.... "^ 


8 


.... < 


9 


.... ■; 


lO 


.... < 


II 


.... lO 


12 


.... c; 







Total product . 



Product 



Value for Paeageaph I 

Grade 

1 55 

n 35 

HI 30 

IV 25 

V 20 

VI 15 

VII 10 

Vlli 5 



(b) The value or credit given for the successful reading of paragraph i 
.varies with the grade.. These values are given in the column to the right 

of the table. Enter the appropriate value for paragraph i in the blank 
space in the column under "Value." Thus, the appropriate value for para- 
graph I, for the third grade, is 30. The values for all other paragraphs 
remain the same for all grades. 

(c) Multiply the score for each paragraph by its value and enter the 
result in the column under "Product." 

(d) Divide the sum of the products by 4. The result is the individual 
score. 

(e) Record the results in the record sheet for oral reading on page 342. 

Directions for Determining the Oral Rate 

In many cases the rate of oral reading is of great importance 
in the process of diagnosis. Unfortunately methods for de- 
termining the oral rate from Gray's scale are not well developed. 
Lloyd and Gray have used paragraph 3 as a measure of rate 
for the third grade. In the same way paragraph 5 was used 
for grade four, paragraph 6 for grade five. The same authors 
consider a rate of less than two words per second as slow; a rate 
of two and three tenths words per second as fair; and a rate of 
three words per second as high. Record on page 342. 



DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 333 

Errors in Oral Reading 

A study of the various types of errors is also a very great aid 
in the diagnosis of certain cases. The only norms which are 
available are in terms of percentages. In order to determine 
such a percentage, divide the number of any single type of error 
by the total number of errors. For example, if a child makes 
ten errors and five of these are omissions, the percentage is fifty. 
Such results may be recorded on page 341. The various types 
of errors may be studied by means of the outline on page 257. 

Directions for Scoring the Quality of Oral Reading 

Directions for giving grades upon pitch, pronunciation, etc. 
Consider the different points to be defined as follows: 

1. Poise refers to the freedom which the subject seemed to feel in the 
reading. For a number of superfluous movements and other signs of em- 
barrassment a low grade should be given; if the subject seems perfectly at 
ease, a high grade should be given. It is important to distinguish between 
lack of poise that is habitual with the subject and that produced by the 
conditions of the experiment. 

2. Pitch is included in the list because some readers raise their voices in 
a marked degree when they read. Before the test begins, the experimenter 
should talk for a time with the subject so that the natural tone of voice may 
be observed. A low grade is to be given if the voice is raised above the 
natural tone except when the reading requires it. 

3. Articulation refers to the accuracy with which the different sounds 
are produced. 

4. Pronunciation refers to completeness and correctness of the enuncia- 
tion of the word, such as the sounding of a final s or ing. 

5. Emphasis refers to the stress which is put on certain words or phrases 
to make the meaning clear. 

6. Force refers to the amount of energy which is put into the reading 
as a whole. 

7. Interpretation, as used here, refers to the ability of the reader to show 
by emphasis, inflection, pauses, etc., that the meaning of the author is 
appreciated. 

8. Record your grades in the proper place on the record sheet, 
page 342. 



334 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

Directions for Scoring Starch's Silent Reading Test 

Adopted from Starch's Work 

To score comprehension by this test, go over the paper written 
by the pupil and mark out all incorrect and irrelevant material. 
Then count the words which remain. This number is the score 
of comprehension. 

To score this test for rate, divide the number of words read 
by thirty. 

Record the results in their proper place on page 342. 

Directions for Scoring the Speed Test 

This test may be scored for comprehension in the same manner 
as the Starch test. 

To obtain the rate, divide the time required for reading 
expressed in seconds into the number of words in the passage 
read. The number of words in each selection is as follows: 

Selection i, 95 
Selection 2, 102 
Selection 3, 117 

Record the results in the proper place on page 342. 

Directions for Scoring the Outline Test 

The points listed below may be taken as correct topics. If 
the child gets the thought expressed by these topics, credit him 
with the point. Count all answers as either right or wrong. 
If any point is doubtful give the pupil the benefit of the doubt. 
Express the results as percentages. For example, if the pupil 
gets three out of four points the score is 75 per cent. 

In order to determine the rate, divide the time required for 
reading expressed in seconds by the number of words in the 
selection. Record results on page 342. 



DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 335 



Number of words, i8o 

1. The blood carries food for the body as commodities are 
sent over the country by raihoads, canals, etc. 

2. The food is manufactured into blood. 

3. There are tubes in the body which have the blood flowing 
through them. 

4. The heart forces the blood through these tubes. 



Number of words, 165 

1 . The personnel of the party. 

2. A description of the fields. 

3. A description of the woods. 

3 
Number of words, 204 

1. The simplest attempts. 

2. The pool. 

Directions for Scoring the Direction Test 

By Pintner and Toops 

A score of* one should be given for each direction correctly 
answered. The total possible score in this test is therefore 
twenty. The following quotation taken from Pintner and Toops' 
work gives detailed directions for scoring this test: 

A direction had to be literally correct before a score was allowed. Direc- 
tion I was given credit only when some sort of a mark crossed out the g and 
the g only. Direction 2 received credit only for the figure 2 placed between 
the two dots, the word two not receiving credit. Direction 3 received credit 
for the answer three, 3, or three feet, etc., or any answer conveying the idea 
three. No. 4 received credit only for the sign "-|-" written above "yester- 
day," no credit for X or for any other sign or any other position than 
above "yesterday." No. 5 had to have the dot fairly below the black line. 



336 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

Credited responses to direction 6 are "7" or "seven" with or without draw- 
ing the addition bar, and the answer placed in any position with respect to 
the two figures to be added. In direction 7, credit was given when n ox N 
was added to the end of Joh, but no credit was given for writing out the 
word John and neglecting to complete the partial Joh. No. 8, credit for 
either X or + in the circle. No. 9, credit for e or E. No. 10, credit only for 
the figure 7, not for the word seven, in the largest square. No. 11, credit for 
any mark through X only. No. 12, credit for G or g (perhaps a slight devia- 
tion from our principle of literal exactness). No. 13, credit for two dots 
placed anjrwhere between the two lines. No. 14, credit only for = placed 
in the proper place, no credit for — or -1-, etc. No. 15, credit for e or E 
No. 16, credit for any mark filling up the greater portion of the blank left 
in the outline. No. 17, credit for X in the proper place. No. 18, credit for 
a dot anjrwhere in the lower one-third area of the circle below the dot in the 
center. No. 19, credit for any shaped line inclosing the three dots only. No. 
20, credit for a horizontal line through sentence or for any mark crossing out 
at least two of the letters, no credit for any line crossing out only one letter 
as in sentence, because this is a response to a misinterpretation of the direc- 
tion whereby letter is understood instead of word. Record results on page 343. 

Directions for Scoring the Newspaper Test 

This score should be thought of in terms of method. If the 
child glances down each column and proceeds as if he knows 
what he is about, he may be scored excellent. If he glances 
over the page looking for each title but in too hasty a manner, 
he may be scored good. If he inspects each column in a manner 
which is too detailed or proceeds without any system, he should 
be scored as poor. Record results on page 346. 

Directions for Scoring the Trabue Language Test 
By Trabue 

The following detailed directions for scoring this test have 
been worked out by Trabue: 

I. We like good boys girls. 

Score 2 and, an, und 

Score I or, not, and good, also 

Score o for, with, said the, and the 



DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 337 

6. The is barking at the cat. 

Score 2 dog, hound 
Score I dogs, boy, dog 
Score o man, cat, god 

8. The stars and the will shine to-night. 

Score 2 moon 

Score I light, planets, lights 

Score o dipper, stripes, clouds, city, sky, sun 

22. Time — — often more valuable money. 

Score 2 is, was, . . . than 

Score I seems, becomes, . . . than 

Score o are . . . with, is . . . with 

23. The poor baby as if it were sick. 

Score 2 cries, cried, acts, acted 1 * very, getting 

lies, lay, looks, looked J . . . quite, extremely 

Score I suffers, suffered, appears, moans, sighs 

lays, feels, behaves, was crying, groans 

acts, looks, plays, . . . never 

feeling, nearly, dangerously, rather, almost 
real, awfully, terribly, pretty, half, home, sea 
bad, about, often, so 

Score o *. . not, was . . . very, 

31. She — — if she will. 

Score 2 can, may 
Score I will, may go, can do well 

Score o does, works, goes, has, is, could, knows, might, plays, is 
1, can't. 



35. Brothers and sisters — — ■ always to help other 

and should quarrel. 

Score 2 

try, strive, offer, seek, agree 
should . . . { endeavor, learn, aim, at- r *. . . each 



tempt, want 



never 



338 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Score I 
must . 
should 



should 
nearly 
ought . 



. . each . . .** 

consent, like, go, work, love 

be ready, come, have, wish 

(glad, happy, willing, eager, ready ] 
expected, able, supposed, told, bade I 
careful, good, apt, trying, together j 
best, needed J 

,.*... the, an, one, one an, . . .** 

have . . . each . .** 
. to try . . each , . . ** 



each 



each 



most . . .* 



each 



has 



Score o 
should ...*... out, along, some, . . .** 
can . . . go . . . one . . .** 
are . . . ready . . . one . . .** 
have . . . had . . . each . . .** 
are . . . kind . . . each . . .** 

38. weather usually a good effect 

spirits. 

Score 2 
cold, pleasant, balmy, frosty "1 
winter, bright, clear, moderate I 
brisk, spring, fair, cool, mild 1 
warm, autumn, beautiful J 

Score I 
*. . . had . . .** 

summer, good, fine, nice, the, hot, sunny, calm 
rainy, temperate, this, such, damp, windy 
*. . . takes, produces, . . .** 
summer, good, . . . has . . .** 

Score o 

*, summer, damp, bad, . . . has, is, . . . to, in 
*. . . makes, shows, . . .** 
*. . . gives ... to, 
bad . . . has . . .** 



48. It is very annoying to toothache, 

comes at the most '- time imaginable. 



one s 



on 
upon 



has 



often 



DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING 



339 



Score 2 



have 



(a, the,) *. . . which 



trying, unexpected, absurd 
inconvenient, embarrassing 
annoying, unwelcome, un- 
usual, distressing, extraordi- 
nary, disagreeable, inoppor- 
tune, undesirable, unfortu- 
nate, unsuitable, unreasona- 
ble, objectionable 



from, with, 



which 



have . .*, 
suffer . . . from 



which 



suffer 

Score I 
get, feel, suffer, bear, .,.*... which . . .** 

horrid, awkward, terrible, critical 
unpleasant, busy, strange, impor- 
tant, unthinkable, peculiar, unlucky 
harmful, valuable, strange, unlikely 
unsatisfactory, unprepared, uncer- 
. tain, awful, queer 
have ...*... for it, as it, and it, that it, that, it, . . .** 
Score o 
have ...*... and . . .** 

j unknown, pleasant, happy 
\ joyful, worst, sudden 



have ...*... which . 



friends is always the it takes. 



worth 



time, effort, trouble 



worth 



54. To- 
Score 2 

have, make, win 1 

gain, be, help, keep / 
Score I 

see, satisfy, meet, greet, know, please, find 

treat, visit, entertain, possess, obtain 

*. . . worth . . . endeavor, energy, pains, patience, work 
Score o 

*. . . for, worthy, of, . . .* 

win, . . . better . . . longer, 

our . . . given . . . best, 

An asterisk following a bracketed group of words indicates that this group 
of words will be indicated thereafter by an asterisk alone. Double asterisks, 
triple asterisks, etc., are also used to refer to and stand for entire groups 
of words. 

Record results on page 343. 



340 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

Directions for Scoring the Thorndike Word Test 
Adopted from Haggerty's Work 

It should be noted that this test is composed of various lines 
of words. Each word in any one of these lines has about the 
same value or degree of difficulty as any other word. In order 
to score the test, mark the paper for the number of wrongly 
marked and omitted words in each line. The highest numbered 
line which the child does with one or no omission or error is taken 
as his score or measure. The results below show one pupil's 
record in this test. A detailed study of the test sheet should 
also be made. 



Line 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


IO-5 


II 


C 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 


3 


3 


4 


3 



Pupil 

It will be of interest to note the type of word upon which the 
pupil fails. The time should also be considered as an index of 
the pupil's ability, although the author does not take this into 
account in his method of scoring. Record results on page 343. 

Directions for Scoring the Perception Tests 
The Short exposure Test 

The child may be scored one for each word which he gets 
correct. If he reports a word which occurs in a sentence but 
gets the word out of order, a score of one-half may be given. 
The final score is the total number of words reported correctly. 

Record the results in the blank form on page 343. 

The Eye-voice Test 

Score one point for each word reported correctly. If a word 
is out of order but is correct, one-half may be credited. The 
final score is the total number of words reported correctly. 

Record the results in the form on page 343. 



CHAPTER XX 



METHODS OF RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 

This chapter contains blank forms for recording the results 
obtained by the various tests and methods of observation pre- 
viously discussed. In addition to this, interpretations are made 
of certain typical cases. These interpretations give a diagnosis 
of such cases and are based upon results procured by the method 
outlined in the discussions which precede. Records for two 
pupils are given in a part of the tests. One of these pupils is 
from the fifth grade and the other from the sixth grade. 
Record Blank for Monroe Silent Reading Test 
Standards by Monroe 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Standard Score 














Comprehension 
This Pupil 
Strict Method 


7-2 


13 


19 
iS-8 


20 


23 


26.4 


This Pupil 
Liberal Method 






18. 5 








Standard Score 














Rate 

This Pupil 
Index of 


52 


73 


89 

8.7 


88 


99 


106 


Comprehension 






q/ii 









Record Sheet for Errors in Oral Reading 
Percentages by McLeod 



1^ 


Repetitions 


Insertions 


Substitu- 
tions 


Omissions 


Minor 
Mispronun- 
ciations 


Gross 
Mispronun- 
ciations 





Aver- 
age 

Num- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 


Aver- 
age 

Num- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 

5-2 

4-3 


Aver- 
age 

Num- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 




Aver- 
age 

Niun- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 

21 
6.5 


Aver- 
age 

Num- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 


Aver- 
age 

Num- 
ber 


This 
Pu- 
pil 


3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 


14.2 
20.2 
18. 1 
II. I 
13.2 
16.8 


15-8 
21.7 


II. I 

7-5 
6.6 
6.1 
8.8 
7.0 


28.2 
30.8 
24.6 
20.6 
26.4 
18.9 


4-9 
8.0 

4-7 
9.0 
8.2 
4-7 


23-3 
21.8 
32.0 
36.3 
31-4 
41.9 


26.3 
45-6 


18. T 

II. 6 
13-8 
16.7 
II. 8 
10. 5 


31-5 
21.7 



341 



342 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Elements in the Quality of Oral Reading 

Poise Emphasis 

Pitch Force 

Articulation Interpretation 

Pronunciation 

Record Blank foe Gray's Oral Reading Test 
Standards by Gray 



Ge'jde 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


Standard Score 

This Pupil 

Rate of Oral Reading. . . 


46 


47 


48 
42.5 


49 
38.2 


47 


48 



Record Blank for Starch Silent Reading Test 
Standards by Starch 

Grade 



Standard Rate Score 

This Pupil 

Standard Comprehension Score 
This Pupil 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


2.1 


2.4 


2.8 


3-2 


3-6 


24 


28 


2,2, 
66 


3-« 


45 



4.0 

so 



Record Blank for Speed Test 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


This Pupil Rate 








2-3 

26.1 






This Pupil Comprehension .... 





No standards are required here. Compare these results with those of 
other silent reading tests The Starch Test is of special interest in making 
such a comparison. 

Record Blank for Outlining Test 



Selection 



Grade 



Standard Score 

This Pupil 

Standard Rate Score. 
This Pupil 



45 

2-5 



47 
2.6 



30 

25.0 

2.9 

1-7 



50 
3-0 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 343 

Record Blank for Direction Test 
Standards by Pintner and Toops 



Age 



Standard. . 
This Pupil. 



8 


9 


lO 


II 


12 


13 


7 


iS 


i8 


iS 


i8 
15 


19 
17 



14 



19 



Record Blank For Trabue Language Test 
Standards by Trabue 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Median Score 

This Pupil 


8.0 


10. 


II. 4 
10 


12.4 


13-4 


14.4 



Record Blank for Thorndike's Visual Vocabulary Test 
Standards by Haggerty 



Gradb 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Median Score 

This Pupil 


4.0 


5-2 


6.0 
4 


6.6 


7.2 


7-9 







Record Sheet for Short-exposure Test. 





Number 
of words 
exposed 


Number 
of wordb 
reported 


Number 
of words 
incorrect 


Number 
of words 
correct 


I 


2 








2 

3 


3 
6 








4 
5 

6 


4 
6 

4 








7 
8 


7 
6 








9 


5 








lO 


3 








ri 


4 








12 


7 








13 


2 








14 


5 








15 
16 


3 
5 








17 


2 








Total 











344 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Norm 


34-3 


38.6 


40.9 
12 


40.2 
21 


45-2 




This Pupil 









Record Sheet for Voice- eye Test 





Number 


Number 


Number 


Selection 


of words 


of words 


of words 




reported 


incorrect 


correct 


I 








2 








3 








4 








5 
6 








7 
8 








Total 









Grade 



Norm 

This Pupil. 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


14. 1 


22.2 


22.3 
19 


31.0 

24 


3I-I 



Record Sheet for Rate or Pronouncing 

To determine the rate of vocalization divide the time in seconds by 
thirty, the number of words. 

Time Rate Errors 

First List 

Second List — — 

Third List 

Average 



Grade 



Norm 

This Pupil. 



3 4 5 6 7 

1.4 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.0 

1.8 1.6 



Record Sheet for Counting Test 
To determine the rate divide the total number counted by fifteen, the 
time. 

Total number counted Rate of countihg 



Grade 



Norm 

This Pupil. 



34567 

4.2 5.3 4.8 5.1 S.2 

7-3 6.0 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 345 



Record Sheet for Eye-movement 
Silent Reading 



Line i. 
Line 2. 
Line 3. 
Line 4. 
Line 5. 
Line 6. 
Line 7. 
Line 8. 
Line 9. 
Line 10 
Average 



Selection 



Forward 
Movement 



Regressive 
Movement 



Selection 



Forward 
Movement 



Regressive 
Movement 



Selection 



Forward 
Movement 



Kegressive 
Movement 



Grade 



Norm for Forward 

Movement 

This Pupil 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


10. 


9.1 


10. 

5-7 


7-5 
iS-4 


7.8 



Short 



Length of Pauses 
Medium 



Long- 



Remarks: 



Record Sheet for Eye-movements 
Oral Reading 



Line i. 
Line 2. 
Line 3. 
Line 4. 
Line 5. 
Line 6. 
Line 7. 
Line 8. 
Line 9 . . 
Line 10. , 
Average . 



Selection 



Forward 
Movement 



Regressive 
Movement 



Selection 



Forward Regressive 
Movement Movement 



Selection 



Forward 
Movement 



Regressive 
Movement 



346 



DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 



Grade 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Norm for Forward 

Movement 

This Pupil 




13-3 


9-3 


Q.O 


I0.6 









Short ■ 



Length of Pauses 
Medium 



Long 



Remarks: 



Summary Sheet 



Oral Reading Ability 


Very Low 
Efficiency 


Low 
Efficiency 


Average 
Efficiency 


High 
Efficiency 


Gray's Score 

Quahty of 


X 
X 

X 
X 


X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 


X 

X 
X 

X 
X 




Errors 




Rate 




Silent Reading Ability . . 

Monroe's Test 

Starch's Test 

Speed Test 




Outline Test 




Language Test 




Direction Test 




Word Test 




Newspaper Test 




Perception Tests 

Short Exposure 




Voice-eye Test 

Motor Tests 




Rate of Counting 


X 


Rate of Pronouncing 

Amount of Vocalization 

Breathing Coordinations 

Vocal Movements 


X 
X 


Extraneous Movements 

Eye-movement Pauses 

Regressive Movements 





The preceding record sheets show results in each case for a 
single test or method of observation. In order to be able to deal 
with the data more conveniently it is necessary to record it on 
the summary sheet. On this sheet the data are all expressed 
in similar terms. The results of the various tests are exDressed 



RECORDING AXD IXTERPRETIXG RESULTS 347 

in terms of eflEiciency. In order to do this it is only necessary 
to judge as to the degree of el£ciency which the results of any 
single test indicate. Four different degrees have been provided 
in the blank form. These are: very low, low, average, and high 
efficiency. These estimates should be the last step in the process 
of recording and should be arrived at only after a careful study 
of the entire reading process has been made. The chief value of 
such a sheet lies in the fact that it brings together all the data 
available in a compact form so that the examiner can deal with 
it more conveniently. 

Interpretation of Resitlts 

The data collected have now been reduced to a form which 
shows whether the subject ranks low. medium, or high in the 
different tests and experiments which have been used. It is 
now necessary to interpret these results or to determine the 
causes of the results so far obtained. This is not always an easy 
thing to do, and sometimes it is not possible, to determine the 
reasons for certain conditions. In order to facilitate the inter- 
pretation of results, the outline of the relations existing among 
the various factors in reading ability as discussed in a preceding 
chapter is reproduced. It should be used in the following man- 
ner. Suppose that the pupil under consideration is slow in his 
rate of oral reading. If his records for the perception test show 
this phase of his reading to be at fault, place a check after span 
of perception: but if his records show that this factor is not at 
fault, then pass this point to the next. If it is decided that span 
of perception should be checked at this point, then pass dovra 
to the place in the table where span of perception appears as a 
heading and determine what factor or factors have produced 
the difficulty in the span of perception. In this way it is possible 
to determine those factors, the underdevelopment or overdevel- 
opment of which has produced the difficulties in the reading of 
the pupil under consideration. WTien used in this manner, the 
outline becomes a diagnostic chart. The results serve as a basis 



348 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

for determining the particular type of remedial work which 
should be used. 

A discussion of the pupils whose records have been given in 
the various blank forms in this chapter will now be given. One 
of these is in the fifth grade and the other is in the sixth grade. 
The results for the sixth grade pupil will be discussed first. 

Case i 

This case was rather difficult to diagnose and required the use 
of many of the tests and observations which have been outlined. 
This child is the son of a successful lawyer and has always had 
good school training. His physical condition is excellent, and 
his reactions as shown in games are all that could be desired. 
In school work his best grades are made in manual work. In 
reading and in other subjects where language is involved his 
work has always been poor, and considerable individual atten- 
tion has been necessary both on the part of teachers and ot 
parents in order to prevent his failing in these subjects. He 
stated that he did not like to read and that he did not read 
very much. 

Diagnostic Sheet 





This 




Pupil 


I. Rate of Okal Reading 




I. Lack of Assimilative Power 


X 


2. Slow Rate of Vocalization 




3. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 


X 


4. Short Span of Perception 


X 


5. Too Great Dependence upon Objective Cues 




6. Overcare 




n. Rate of Silent Reading 




I. Faulty Eye-movement 




2. Lack of Assimilative Power 


X 


3. Large Amount of Vocalization 




4. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 


X 


5. Short Span of Perception 


X 


6. Overcare 




7. Lack of Effort 





RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 349 

Diagnostic Sheet — Continued 







This 






Pupil 


III. 


Omissions in Oral Reading 

1. Fields of Perception do not Overlap 

2. Reading from Context 






3. Fluctuations of Attention 


X 


IV. 


Repetitions in Oral Reading 






I. Habitual 


X 




2. Dissatisfaction with First Attempt 






3. Too Great Overlapping in the Fields of Perception 




V. 


Insertions in Oral Reading 
I. Reading from Context 






2. Fluctuations of Attention 


X 




3. Apperceptive Processes too Active 




VI. 


Mispronunciation in Oral Reading 
I. Faulty Perception 






2. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 


X 




3. Special Defects 






4. Apperceptive Processes too Active 




VII. 


Substitutions in Oral Reading 

1. Reading from Context 

2. Faulty Perception 

3. Apperceptive Processes too Active 




Vili. 


Quality of Oral Reading 






I. Failure to Appreciate Language Relations 


X 




2. Lack of Training 






3. Slow Assimilation 


X 


IX. 


Comprehension 






I. Slow Assimilative Power 


X 




2. Failure to Evaluate Different Ideas 






3. Poor Motor Adjustments 






4. Short Span of Perception 


X 




5. Lack of Language Ability 






6. Lack of Synthetic Ability 






7. Lack of Analytic Ability 




X. 


Faulty EYE-movEMENTs 






I. Short Span of Perception 


X 




2. Periods of Confusion 


X 




3. Poor Motor Coordinations 




XI. 


Breathing 

1. Nervousness 

2. Poor Motor Coordinations 

3. Habitual 






4. Lack of Training 





350 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

Diagnostic Sheet — Continued 





This 
Pupil 


XII. 


Rate of Vocalization 

1. Slow Reaction Time 

2. Lack of Familiarity with Language Forms 


X 


XIII. 


Amount of Vocalization 

1. Habitual 

2. Accompaniment of Meaning 




XIV. 


Extraneous Movements 

1. Nervousness 

2. Habitual 

3. Lack of Adjustment to Reading Situation 




XV. 


Vocal Movements 

1. Habitual 

2. Defects in Speaking Parts 




XVI. 


Span of Perception 

1. Faulty Training 

2. Slow Assimilation 

3. Low Level of Attention 


X 


XVII. 


Voice-eye Span 

1. Faulty Training 

2. Slow Assimilation 

3. Low Level of Attention 


X 



The first results for silent reading were obtained by a test 
similar to the Starch test. This test indicated a rate of 1.6 
words per second and resulted in a reproduction score of 40.9 
per cent. A later silent reading test based upon questions gave 
a rate of one word per second and three questions out of five 
answered correctly. The results for each of these tests were 
much lower than those for other children who were doing the 
same school work as the pupil under consideration. 

An examination of the record sheets for oral reading shows that 
the results in this test are for the most part poor. In only two 
types of errors has he a lower percentage than the average, 
while the percentage for mispronunciation is higher. The rate 
of reading in this oral test varies from 3.2 words per second for 
selection i to .6 words per second for selection 12. The 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 351 

rate for selection 6 is 2.1 words per second and for selection 
7 1.8 words per second. These rates are slow for a pupil 
in this grade. The large nurnber of mispronunciations, taken 
with the slow rate, indicates a fundamental lack in vocabulary. 

One of his teachers suggested in her report that he did not put 
sufficient effort into his work. In order to see the effect of greater 
speed upon his reading process, the speed test was given. The 
results in this test are even lower than in the tests already dis- 
cussed, and indicate that greater effort which undertakes to 
produce greater speed is not effective. 

An examination of the results for both the silent and oral 
reading tests shows that the rate is about equal in the two cases. 
Two interpretations are possible for this. The first is that the 
pupil is not able to differentiate between the methods of oral 
and silent reading. However, the fact that no vocalization is 
found in his silent reading practically eliminates this possibility. 
The second explanation is that he has such a poor knowledge of 
language relations and language forms that it is impossible for 
interpretation to take place faster in silent reading than in oral 
reading. 

Both tests of perception indicate a short span. In the voice- 
eye test he got only twenty-four words, which is about twenty 
per cent below the standard; and in the short exposure test he 
got only twenty-one words, which is only about fifty per cent of 
the norm. There seem to be two possible explanations for these 
results. One of these is that he was not sufficiently familiar with 
language forms to be able to deal with them in a rapid and 
accurate manner. The other explanation is that he is slow in 
assimilation which involves printed language. 

The data for the counting test indicate that the slow rate 
which has already been pointed out is not due to slow reaction 
time. On the other hand, the results for the pronouncing test 
are below the standard. As indicated in the diagnostic sheet 
(page 348) this is probably due to slow assimilation or to a lack 
of familiarity with language forms. 



352 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

The very large number of eye movements can indicate only a 
fundamental difficulty. These records were taken by means of 
photography; in some places theyindicate clearly periods of con- 
fusion, while at other points there are indications that words 
have been spelled. Many of the pauses are exceedingly long and 
many regressive movements are made. 

An examination of the summary sheet (page 346) shows that 
in only a very few phases of reading does this pupil rank above 
low efficiency. In the direction test he is ranked as average. 
This is significant, because this test does not depend upon lan- 
guage ability except in a slight degree. Some other phases of 
reading ability in which he is ranked average or better are differ- 
ent motor phases of the reading process, which apparently are 
not closely related to his difficulty. 

A further interpretation of these results is given in the diag- 
nostic sheets, page 348. It is the purpose of this outhne to 
indicate some of the fundamental processes in reading ability. 
Under the rate of oral and silent reading three causes may be 
assigned in this case for the poor results. These causes are slow 
assimilative power, lack of familiarity with language forms, and 
a short span of perception. Under heading XVI of the same 
outline it is seen that the only feasible reason which can be 
assigned for a short span of perception in this case is slow assim- 
ilative ability. This leaves only two factors as contributing to 
the results. The question may now be raised as to the relation 
which exists between these two factors. According to the boy's 
own testimony, he did not like to read; therefore he read but 
little. This is probably one of the main reasons why his vocab- 
ulary was limited and why he seemed to fail in other phases of 
language work. This leaves, then, the final cause as slow assim- 
ilation. 

There is one other factor in the case which needs considera- 
tion. According to his teachers, he lacked concentration of 
attention. If this child assimilated as slowly as the results seem 
to indicate, it is easy to see that if he attempted to read at the 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 353 

same rate as his classmates, he would not be able to get the 
thought. This would certainly result in lack of interest and fluc- 
tuations of attention. 

Emphasis should be placed upon the fact that the type of 
assimilation which seemed to be lacking in this case is a highly 
specialized type of mental activity. It is the assimilation which 
goes along with printed language that seems to be in question. 
Those types of assimilation which accompany play, manual 
activities, or other types of activities in which printed language 
plays a small part seem to give the child little difficulty. 

Two types of training were given in this case. One of these 
had for its purpose the increasing of the span of perception and 
the second the increasing of speed. The first type of training 
showed no results. The second resulted in a considerable 
increase in speed and a slight increase in comprehension. A 
marked improvement was to be seen in the eye-movement rec- 
ords taken after the practice. These results are shown in 
Table XXI. 

Table XXI 
Showing Improvement in Eye-movement Records after Speed Drills 



Average 

Number of 

Pauses 


Average 

Length of 

Pauses 


Average Number 
of Regressive 
Movements 


15-5 
6.1 


15-4 

12.6 


4 . 5 (before practice) 
1 . 2 (after practice) 



A study of this case has been included because experience in 
this type of work indicates that there are many readers of this 
type. They are usually considered as dullards or as very back- 
ward pupils and on this assumption they are often dismissed 
from the mind of the teacher. One difficulty which such readers 
encounter in their work is that they are nearly always required 
to work in a hurry. If they are not hurried by their teacher, 
they work in an environment which hurries them. From this 
standpoint it may be that the training in speed given the pupil 



354 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

was not the proper training. It is possible that this child is one 
who cannot hurry and should therefore not be hurried. 

Another type of training which suggests itself for children of 
this type is to encourage them to reduce the speed of their read- 
ing to the point where assimilation can take place. That is, if 
the difficulty is one of slow assimilation such a difficulty should 
be decreased if the rate of reading is made sufficiently slow. 

Case 2 

The child whose record is reported in the spaces provided 
for in the fifth grade has a difficulty in reading which is entirely 
different from that of the pupil just discussed and which is more 
easily diagnosed. This child is the son of a high grade laboring 
man. Both parents are much interested in the welfare of the 
boy, and the mother has had frequent conferences with his 
teacher concerning his difficulty in reading. The boy is normal 
in every respect and has never failed in his school work. How- 
ever, he was reported by his teacher as a very unsatisfactory 
reader. A conference with the teacher revealed that the pupil's 
difficulty was for the most part in oral reading. The chief fault 
was that he left out entire groups of words. With respect to 
silent reading, she reported that he read very rapidly (apnar- 
ently too rapidly in many instances), and that he seemed to 
understand what he read in this manner. She also commented 
upon the fact that he held a very high opinion of himself and of 
his own work. The first time that the writer saw the boy, the 
information was volunteered by him that there was something 
wrong with his eyes because he left out words when he read. 
He said further that he had had them examined by a doctor, 
but that no defects were found. Careful tests of his vision by 
the writer revealed no defects which could possibly account for 
his leaving out three or four words at a time, as he often did. 

Through an oversight of the examiner, the first test given him 
was the Monroe Silent Reading Test for grades six, seven, and 
eight. He finished this test in four minutes, but did not get a 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 355 

single exercise right. On the following day he was given the 
Monroe Test provided for the fifth grade. The results for this 
test as shown on page 341 indicate that the pupil is slightly below 
standard both with respect to rate and comprehension. The 
results for the first test were probably due in part to the fact 
that he is a rapid reader and in part to the fact that the mention 
of rate in the directions stimulated him to read entirely beyond 
his capacity. The results for the second test may be attributed 
to the fact that the examiner told him that he had read too 
rapidly on the day before. It is probable that the results of the 
Starch Test on page 342 represent his normal reading. In this 
test both the rate and comprehension scores are much above the 
standards. An examination of the record sheet for this test, 
however, indicates that the reading has been somewhat too rapid 
for accuracy. 

The chief point of interest in the results of the oral test is the 
very large percentage of omissions. The words omitted were for 
the most part words which were not essential to the meaning. 
The score in this test also indicates a lack of vocabulary. This 
result is corroborated by the results of the vocabulary test on 
page 343. The lack of vocabulary is probably due to the fact 
that the child, according to his own testimony, liad had few 
opportunities to read in any extensive way, although he ex- 
pressed a keen interest in historical material. 

The results for the Trabue Test indicate that the pupil has 
good control of the language relations involved in this test, while 
in the case of the direction test the standard is not reached. 
Both of the perception tests show results which are far below 
standards and raise the question as to how one who is endowed 
with such ashort span of perception can read as rapidly as this 
pupil does. The counting and the pronouncing tests add little 
to the solution of the problem. The eye-movement records on 
page 345 indicate a rapid and well-developed method of reading. 

The diagnosis of the case appears easy, and it does not seem 
necessary to use the summary and diagnostic sheets. This pupil 



356 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

is evidently one who has developed a rapid silent reading rate in 
spite of the fact that he is somewhat limited in vocabulary and 
in the span of perception. These handicaps mean in the major- 
ity of cases a slow and tedious rate of reading, but in the case of 
this pupil these handicaps do not bring about such results. As 
suggested before, the chief fault which attached to his reading 
was that he left out words in oral reading. It is probable that 
this was due to his short span of perception, which did not allow 
the fields of perception to overlap as the reading progressed. 
In oral reading this makes very poor reading, but in silent read- 
ing it amounts to little if the thought is not lost. The results 
for comprehension indicate that he is able to get most of the 
ideas which he reads. It is exceedingly doubtful if it would be 
good policy to expect this child to change his method in order 
that it might be more accurate and at the same time much 
slower. 

If his method of reading could be developed to the point 
where he could, by means of a knowledge of language relations, 
sense the parts of a passage which require careful reading and 
the parts which could be hastened over, it would be closely akin 
to skimming and would evidently be highly efficient. That the 
pupil is developing this type of method is evidenced by the 
somewhat high score made in the language test and by the fact 
that the words omitted in the oral reading test were unimportant. 

In the explanation of the results to the teacher, it was em- 
phasized that the boy should not be criticized or scolded as he 
had been by his parents. Instead of this, there were good rea- 
sons why the boy was to be congratulated on his achievements. 
One recommendation with respect to the case was that small 
emphasis should be placed upon oral reading because of the effect 
which it might have upon rate. Another recommendation was 
that much silent reading should be encouraged and that this 
should be checked by questions or by reproduction in order that 
careless methods might not be adopted. In other words, the 
rapid reading was to be encouraged with the aim that eventually 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 357 

it would develop more and more the practice of accurate and 
rapid skimming. 

Case 3 

Another equally interesting case will now be discussed; but 
in order to save space, the record of this pupil will be condensed 
as seen in Table XXII. This is the record of a fifth grade girl. 
Her school work has always been satisfactory, except that she 
required more time than her classmates. This resulted in her 

Table XXII 
Record of Fifth Grade Girl in Various Phases of Reading 



Tests 


Monroe's 
Silent 


Oral 


Percep- 
tion 


Eye-movement 




Rate 


Comp. 


Rate 


Score 




Forward 


Regress- 
sive 


Standards 

Class Median 

This Pupil 


89 
76 
67 


16 
II 


3 


48 
48 
68 


40.9 
59-2 


I to 2 









carrying on a considerable part of her school work at home. 
From the table it is clear that this child is a superior oral reader. 
She was reported by the examiner as a ''beautiful oral reader." 
Her record in the silent reading test is much below the median 
for her own class, and still further below Monroe's standards. 
In the search for an explanation of her case, it was first thought 
that she made use of oral methods in her silent reading. The 
observations of her silent reading showed, however, almost an 
entire absence of vocalization and extraneous movements or any 
other type of activity which might indicate a lack of adjustment 
to silent reading. The results for the perception test are entirely 
satisfactory. This indicates that the span of perception is such 
as to make for rapid and efficient silent reading, but for some 
reason the child is not able to employ her full span under the 
conditions of reading. The explanation of her difficulty is found 
in the record of her eye-movements. This shows that she has 



358 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

from six. to eight pauses to the line, and averages one regressive 
movement to each hne. In some Hnes there are as many as 
two movements of this type. A reader in the fifth grade with 
the span of perception indicated in this case need not have so 
many pauses to the hne. The regressive movements are also 
greater in number than they should be. 

The best explanation of such reading seems to be that the 
pupil is overcareful. This is in harmony with the reports of 
both her teacher and her mother, who state that she is very con- 
scientious and desires to get everything just right. She is prob- 
ably a victim of the ''slow and sure doctrine." She is the type 
of child who would consider admonitions of this type very seri- 
ously, and as a result she has developed a method of reading 
which may be designated as overcareful. 

A reader of this type must learn to plunge ahead and must 
realize that reading involves the element of guessing. Before 
she can become a rapid reader, she will have to learn to employ 
her full span of perception. This will give her the benefit of 
partial interpretations which come from peripheral vision. The 
remedy in her case probably lies in the reading of the story type 
of material. After such reading she should not be held responsi- 
ble for details of meaning. In other words, she should be en- 
couraged to read for her own pleasure. A further remedy lies 
in the explanation of the faults to the pupil and to the parents. 
Such plans were followed out and the last report from her 
teacher indicated that she was making improvements, but a con- 
siderable period of time will probably elapse before the defect 
is entirely overcome. 

One further point concerning this case should be emphasized. 
This is that the discovery of it was entirely accidental. It is 
exceedingly doubtful if any teacher or principal would report 
children of this type, because their work is most often satis- 
factory. The fact remains, however, that their methods of work 
are exceedingly wasteful, and it should be the business of the 
school to pick out such cases early in their development, and to 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 359 

employ methods which would reduce the number of them to a 
minimum. 

Case 4 

Two cases in which the difficulty is more deep-seated will now 
be discussed.! Each of these cases is still under observation, so 
that detailed data concerning them are not given. One of these 
is a boy nearly twelve years of age. He should be in the fifth 
grade, but he has failed twice, so that he is in only the third 
grade. Because of the fact that he was about to fail again, his 
mother brought him to the writer's laboratory. He is a very 
attractive child and is from an excellent family. He is exceed- 
ingly active and is fond of outdoor life. A description of his 
reading process may be given in terms of the Gray oral reading 
scale. When given this test, he read the first passage in fifty-five 
seconds with three errors. The second passage was read in 
fifty-five seconds with no errors. The last passage which he 
was able to read with any degree of success was the fifth. This 
was read in 115 seconds with five errors. He was unable to 
accomplish anything with the Monroe silent reading test. A 
general estimate of his reading ability would be that he could 
read about as well as a child in the high first or low second grade. 

On the short-exposure test he never got more than one word, 
and this only when the exposure was as much as one second. He 
had some knowledge of phonics and spelled many of the words 
which he failed to recognize. In fact, it seems that he used the 
motor activities involved in spelling as a basis for recognition 
rather than the visual form of the word. 

In addition to the various reading tests a number of intel- 
ligence tests were given. In all tests of this type he measured up 
to, or was above, the standards. He showed the ability to ex- 
press himself in writing and the ability to work at problems. 
The results of all the tests and examinations used revealed 

' The writer is indebted to a former colleague, Dr. L. W. Sackett, for cooperation 
in the study of these cases. 



360 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND METHODS 

clearly that his chief difficulty was in dealing with printed 
language. Inquiry showed that he never read for himself, be- 
cause he got very little meaning. His mother had made a 
serious mistake in doing all his reading for him. 

The explanation of the case is probably a two-fold one. 
First, there were two rather pronounced scars on the left side of 
the skull, which were results of injuries at birth. Apparently, as 
a result of these injuries, severe convulsions set in when the child 
was only a few days old and continued for several weeks. After 
this, the development of the child was normal in every respect. 
A second factor which probably enters into the case is that of 
left-handedness. When the child started to school he was left- 
handed in all activities. His teacher required him to write with 
his right hand. The mother reported that there developed soon 
after this a hesitancy in speech which had not appeared before. 
This hesitancy is still present. The interpretation which it 
seems plausible to place upon these facts is that the injuries have 
made it impossible for the visual memory center to function 
properly when the memory of words is involved. While there 
is not absolute word blindness, the center does not function as 
it should. This difficulty may have been enhanced by the change 
from left-handedness. A special instructor is attempting to 
increase the efficiency of this pupil by intensive training. The 
instructor is emphasizing the motor elements of language as a 
basis for recognition. 

Case 5 

Another case of a very different type may be cited. This is a 
boy fourteen years old. His reading ability is about that of a 
third grade child. He stammers very badly when embarrassed. 
The appearance of his eyes led to an examination of them by an 
oculist. This revealed a bad case of double vision. According 
to the boy, his reading material had always appeared double. 
This difficulty had increased during the last year because of an 
injury he had received in the temporal region just back of the 



RECORDING AND INTERPRETING RESULTS 361 

socket for the eye. The difficulties which attend double vision 
had made it almost impossible for him to read, and as a result 
he had read only what was necessary. With proper glasses it 
seems that he should be able to develop into a normal reader. 
The oculist stated that it would be about three years before the 
eyes would function properly. 

Other cases which differ very much from those already de- 
scribed might be given but the foregoing results are probably 
sufficient to illustrate the methods used and the results obtained. 
The cases cited should convince teachers of the desirability of 
understanding clearly the difficulties which different children 
encounter in their reading. Reading ability varies from child 
to child and to develop it properly in those instances where a 
deficiency exists requires an understanding of each case. To 
assume that every child who has difficulty in reading needs only 
to read more may increase the difficulty rather than decrease it. 



PART III 
REMEDIAL MEASURES 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE LITERATURE OF REMEDIAL MEASURES 

The problem of the remaining chapters of the book is a dis- 
cussion of those measures which are available for training pupils 
in order that the difficulties revealed by diagnosis may be over- 
come. It is remedial work which gives diagnosis its importance. 
Indeed, diagnosis has no value except as it leads to remedial 
plans. 

A survey of the literature upon remedial measures shows that 
the development of methods and devices for this type of work 
has not kept pace with the development of methods for diagnosis. 
Some authors are content to make general suggestions upon the 
problem, while others give the results of certain types of training 
but do not give the technique in sufficient detail to be of benefit 
to t-eachers who may desire to attempt the same type of work. 
This probably means that a definite and refined technique was 
not developed for the training reported. 

There is, however, a considerable body of material at hand 
which should be carefully studied by every teacher of reading. 
The work in this field divides itself into two distinct types. 
These may be designated as general and individual remedial 
measures. 

General Remedial Measuiies 

The measures designated by this title are those changes in 
method which are intended to increase the efficiency of an entire 
class or of an entire school system. Certain contributions of 
this type have been made by Gray (7). He suggests that speed 
can be encouraged by limiting the amount of time given to 
reading. At another point in his discussion this author says: 

365 



366 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Many selections may be read for the story. On the other hand, many 
selections should be read with more care in order to determine what the 
essential points are in the selection or to weigh the relative importance of 
the facts or to associate the facts of the selection with things which the child 
already knows. Pupils should be trained to read selections silently and 
under the guidance of special purposes. 

Llewelyn (15) has found the following types of training to be 
effective: (i) motivation in oral reading, (2) written questions 
for silent reading, and (3) urging children to do outside reading. 
Oberholtzer (12) has emphasized the value of reading a large 
amount of relatively simple material in the fourth, fifth, and 
sixth grades. Peters (13) has tried speed drills with 207 children. 
The results show an increase of 18.7 per cent in speed with a 
slight loss in comprehension. This author also found that a 
definite aim for the reading increased comprehension. 

Suggestions of this type indicate that, as the emphasis in 
reading instruction shifts more toward rapid and accurate 
interpretation, methods will be devised which will increase the 
efficiency of all pupils in these respects. 

Individual Remedial Measures 
The methods considered here are those which are devised to 
increase the efficiency of an individual pupil. With respect to 
this problem Uhl (29) has suggested the following plan: (i) the 
reading of very easy and interesting material, (2) the giving of 
particular attention to meaning, (3) the reading of short easy 
sentences until they are read correctly, (4) "looking ahead" 
while reading, (5) a limited amount of drilling upon abstract 
material, and (6) the encouragement of children to do outside 
reading. 

Another author interested in the same problem is Judd (13). 
One type of training emphasized in his discussions is the analysis 
of words. He forestalls objections to such work in the following 
words : 

Training a child in the analysis of words may very properly be described 
as training him in the mechanics of reading. Purely mechanical training 



THE LITERATURE 367 

is in an important sense in opposition to the purpose of the school in its 
efforts to make good readers. The school aims to reach the level of fluent 
synthetic grasp of phrases. Mechanical training does, indeed, temporarily 
prevent from understanding the meaning of the passages. Mechanical 
training would not be justified if distractions could be avoided by ready 
recognition of all words. Mechanics are justified when they contribute the 
final recognition of words. 

Further types of practice suggested by the same author are 
training to reduce vocaHzation, to see phrases, to develop proper 
movements of the eyes, and to develop proper interest in the 
subject matter. 

Results obtained by different methods of practice are given 
in detail by this investigator. Case G was given training in oral 
reading for six weeks. A second six weeks were given over to 
drill in phonics and in word analysis. In the third six weeks a 
great deal of silent reading was given. Each of the types of 
training was used at all times, but the various phases were 
stressed as indicated above. As a result of this training, the 
rate of oral reading increased from 2.4 words per second for the 
first six weeks to 2.7 words per second for the last six weeks, while 
the errors were reduced from 4.5 per hundred words read to i.i 
errors per hundred words. In teaching word analysis different 
systems of phonics, with variations of each, were used. In 
teaching silent reading, paragraphs or selections dealing with 
topics which were of special interest to the child were used. In 
some cases the selections were modified so that they contained 
words learned in the exercises in phonics. In other cases ques- 
tions were proposed, the answers to which were to be found in 
the material to be read. As a result of this training, the rate of 
silent reading increased from 2.4 to 3.6 words per second, and 
comprehension increased from 22 per cent to 74 per cent. 

In addition to these results, certain other effects of the train- 
ing are recorded as follows: 

Her teachers report that case G reads with much greater ease and fluency 
of expression, the quality of her voice has improved, and the nasal tones 
have almost disappeared. She seems to enjoy reading silently much more 



368 



REMEDIAL MEASURES 



than before training. Frequently she expresses a preference for reading a 
passage silently, saying, "I can do it faster." Her oral reproductions con- 
tain many more of the expressions found in the original passage than for- 
merly. 

Another pupil studied by Judd is designated as Case H. This 
child was given much oral reading and phonic analysis with a 
few minutes of silent reading for the first six weeks. This train- 
ing resulted in increasing the rate of oral reading from 1.33 words 
per second to 2.57 words per second, and the number of errors in 
the same passage before and after practice was reduced from 47 
to 15. During a second period of six weeks silent reading was 
emphasized. In this training narrative material was used at 
first, and later informational material was introduced. The 
factor of personal interest was also used to advantage. After 
such reading, either oral or written reproduction was required. 

In another part of his report Judd suggests an intensive study 
of words as a type of training. The term ''an indomitable hero " 
was introduced in a selection read by one of his subjects. This 
led to the following synonyms and equivalent phrases : 

imdomitable fearless stouthearted 

courageous heroic intrepid 

resolute bold audacious 

manly daring defiant 

plucky imdismayed 

to look danger in the face 

to screw one's courage to the sticking point 

to take the bull by the horns 

to beard the lion in his den 

to put on a bold front 

The training of these different children as carried out by Judd 
divides itself into three types. These are as follows: (i) training 
in word analysis, (2) training in oral reading, and (3) training 
in sUent reading. Each type of training seems to have been 
given each pupil. The theory which apparently underlies such a 
method is that efficiency is to be attained in the case of those 



THE LITERATURE 



369 



who have difficulty in reading by increasing the amount read 
and by increasing the ability to analyze certain difficulties in 
reading. 

The writer (8) has also given training with reference to special 
difficulties in reading. All the subjects were selected because 
earlier study of their reading process had shown their individual 
needs. In every instance the practice extended over a period of 
twenty days. Twenty minutes was devoted to the work each 
day. Each type of training was directed by a different person, 
who, in each case, was a college student. The first kind of train- 
ing may be designated as training in speed. 

Training in Speed 

The subject was a fifth grade girl. The training consisted in 
having the child read selections adapted to her age and school 
grade. The directions required that she read as fast as possible. 
If necessary, this was to be done at the expense of comprehen- 
sion. The results of the practice are shown in Table XXIII. 

Table XXIH 
Record of a Subject before and after Practice in Speed Reading 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


4 


■.2^ 


2-5 


S 


3-5 


4 


:i5 


4.6 


5 


4.0 




Gain 84 


Gain 14 






per cent 




per cent 


s 


146 


1-7 


S 


2.0 


5 


:i7 


4.6 


4 


3-0 




Gain 171 


Gain 50 






per cent 




per cent 


7 


:5i 


1.2 


5 


2.0 


7 


:Si 


3-8 


3 


•5 




Gain 217 


Loss 75 






per cent 




per cent 



Writing Time 



2:31 (before practice) 
1 136 (after practice) 



2:15 (before practice) 
:59 (after practice) 



2:27 (before practice) 
43 (after practice) 



370 



REMEDIAL MEASURES 



This table indicates that the pupil was tested before and after 
practice both as to rate and comprehension. Comprehension 
was tested by having the subject answer questions. It will be 
seen that there is a very decided increase in speed in all the tests, 
and that there is loss in comprehension only in selection seven, 
which was rather difficult for a pupil of this grade. Such results 
indicate the possibility of more efficient reading as a result of 
greater effort. 

Training in Quick Perception 

In this experiment the training consisted in exposing before 
the child short sentences for brief periods of time. The object 
of this practice was to determine whether the span of perception 
could be increased by such training. 

Two different experiments were carried out. In the first of 
these two boys from the sixth grade were the subjects. This 
training failed to produce results. The second experiment was 
performed with two pupils in the fourth grade. In these cases 
there was a distinct improvement, as shown in Table XXIV. 

Such results' indicate that training in this phase of the per- 
ceptual processes is effective, if conducted early in the school 
experiences of the pupil, and that certain habits in connection 
with the reading activity are apparently established earlier in 
the school life of the child than has been supposed. 

Table XXIV 
Record of Two Subjects before and after Practice in Quick Perception 



Average on 
2 Words 



2.0 

1-3 
2.0 



Average on 
3 Words 


Average on 
4 Words 


Average on 
5 Words 


Average on 
6 Words 


2-5 

30 

I.O 

30 


2-5 
4.0 
1.6 
4.0 


30 
4-3 
1-5 
3-9 


3-3 
3-3 
2.2 

3-3 



Average on 7 Words 

Omitted (before practice) 
3 . 5 (after practice) 
2.0 (before practice) 
3 . 5 (after practice 



This type of work is closely related to the training in the pri- 
mary grades, which is based upon the use of flash cards. It 
appears that work of this kind should be much better controlled 



THE LITERATURE 



371 



and should be given more emphasis in the early school training, 
which has for its purpose the development of reading ability. 
Training to Decrease Vocalization in Silent Reading 
The next type of training conducted by the writer had to do 
with decreasing vocalization in silent reading. The subjects in 
this case were pupils whose silent reading might be characterized 
as ''inaudible oral" reading. At the beginning of the practice 
some explanation of the effects of a large amount of vocalization 
in silent reading was made. The material used for the training 
was selected so as to be of interest to children of this age and 
grade. The subjects were directed to read in their normal way, 
except that they were to eliminate vocalization. After a few 
days the vocal movements disappeared almost entirely. The 
instructor reported great progress, and was very enthusiastic 
about the results. When the control tests were given, it was 
found that a very considerable increase had been made in rate, 
but that there was a decrease in comprehension. The results 
are shown for one of the subjects in Table XXV. The decrease 
in comprehension may have been due to the fact that these sub- 
jects were children whose mental activity demanded motor 
accompaniments or it may have been due to the fact that the 
decrease in the vocalization was brought about too rapidly. 

Table XXV 
Record of a Subject before and after Practice in the Decrease of Vocalization 



Writing Time 



Selection 


Time 


Rate 


Questions 
Attempted 


Questions 
Correct 


4 

4 


:28 
:i7 

■Si 
:46 


2-5 

4.0 


5 

4 

5 
5 


4-5 
4.0 


5 

5 


Gain 60 
per cent 

1-5 
1-7 


Loss II 
per cent 

4-S 
4.0 




Loss 13 
per cent 


Loss II 
per cent 



6:12 (before practice) 
3:28 (after practice) 



4:15 (before practice) 
2 40 (after practice) 



372 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Training in Comprehension 

Another type of training in the same series of experiments 
had to do with comprehension. The practice consisted in hav- 
ing the pupil read selections carefully with a view to emphasizing 
those elements on which the meaning depended. Such matters 
as topic sentences, relational words, and the effects of different 
types of modifying phrases were discussed. The results may be 
summarized as follows: (i) there was a distinct increase in rate; 
(2) a gain in comprehension is made in two tests by one subject, 
and no gain is made by the other subject. The results in the 
latter case were explained by the instructor as being due to the 
pupil's attitude toward the work. These results do not seem very 
encouraging, and yet it is true that where gains in comprehen- 
sion were made they were greater than those shown in any 
other type of training. It is probably true that this phase of 
reading requires a longer period of practice in which to produce 
results than is required in any of the other phases so far dealt 
with. 

Training in Phonics 

The last t5^e of training to be considered had to do with 
phonics. Two third grade boys who showed a lack of ability to 
deal with new words by means of analysis were given this train- 
ing. The practice was not connected in any way with their 
reading work; and although there was a very appreciable in- 
crease in their ability to analyze and pronounce new words, the 
effect was not noticeable in their reading. This makes clear 
the desirability of correlating any type of training with the 
reading activities of the pupil. 

Variations of most of the preceding methods have been carried 
out recently by Gray (9) and Anderson and Merton (i). Two 
new types of remedial methods introduced by these authors are 
training in phrasing and training to make automatic the recogni- 
tion of certain phrases which are often repeated in discourse, 



THE LITERATURE 373 

and training to eliminate periods of confusion. The results 
of the series of experiments may be summarized as follows: 

1. It is clear that speed, comprehension, and vocalization 
can be modified in a positive way by practice. It is also true 
that the perceptual span can be increased if the training is given 
early in the child's school life. 

2. There is need of careful technique for conducting the 
different tj'pes of practice, and instructors with experience are 
highly desirable. 

3. How far certain types of training should be carried is an 
open question. This is shown by the falling off in comprehension 
after certain types of training have been employed. 

4. Rate can be improved by different methods. Such an 
increase was brought about by training in rapid reading, by 
training in decreasing vocalization, by training in phonics, and 
by training in comprehension. In three of these methods speed 
in reading was not emphasized, and yet in each case there was 
a marked increase in rate. In other words, it seems that if the 
attention of the reader is directed to any one of these four phases 
of the reading process, the result is an increase in rate. 

In conclusion emphasis should be placed upon one difference 
which seems to exist between the training employed by Judd and 
that used by the writer. The methods used by Judd required 
that all subjects be given the same general training with certain 
variations to meet the needs of individual pupils. The methods 
used by the writer are more specialized. The particular weak- 
ness of a pupil is determined, and only that training which is 
thought to correct this deficiency is given. The two types of 
training extended over periods of time which are so different 
that it is impossible to compare results. The first method 
may be designated as indirect in its nature, and the second 
as direct. 

An objection which may be made to all the methods of train- 
ing thus far discussed is that they are not practicable, because 
they have been based upon individual instruction and the 



374 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

training has been given by special teachers outside the regular 
reading period. 

That special training in reading can be carried on in a school 
room by the regular teacher as a part of the daily work has been 
shown by Miss Zirbes (30) . She gave special training to a class 
for a period of seven months. This training was of a nature 
which supplied the needs of individual pupils and was given 
during the regular reading recitations. This author has divided 
the remedial work which she employed into ten different types. 
She has elaborated the various forms of training as follows: 

Type Lesson i. All look at the first phrase, looking up when they 
reach a comma, or a period. When the entire group is looking at the teacher 
she nods and they repeat the phrase. She watches individuals to find their 
difficulties, but does not interrupt. When they have said all but the last 
word of the phrase they again look down, silently getting the next phrase 
and looking up, holding the phrase in mind until all are ready. Again the 
teacher nods and the group gives the phrase orally, looking down at the last 
word and continuing this procedure to the end of the paragraph or section. 
The intensive study calculated to improve poor readers, can be made to 
yield a double return, if instead of selecting hard words and subjecting them 
to analytic study, the unit is the phrase or group of words which expresses 
an idea. Instead of working at a difficult word, the phrase in which it 
appears is mastered. Instead of working with a child at a time and giving 
each child only a few minutes of actual oral reading, four or five of those 
who have similar ability are grouped together, while other groups of poor 
readers follow silently. Third grade material or very simple fourth grade 
material is used for this purpose. 

While other pupils are being tested the ones who have had Type i 
answer mentally or in writing blackboard questions concerning the ma- 
terial of their lesson. Occasionally duplicated sheets containing uncom- 
pleted sentences or a story are used instead of the children filling in the 
blanks mentally or in writing. 

Type Lesson 2. Eye Training and Focus. Field of vision enlarged 
to include several words rather than one. First: by having the book far 
enough from the eyes. Second: by eliminating the use of a finger or other 
placekeeping devices. Third: by work with flash cards, flashing phrases, 
trying to get a phrase with one flash (orally). Counting the number of 
flashes needed for each phrase. These phrases can be cut from current 
printed matter and mounted on small cards. Written sentences directing 



THE LITERATURE 



375 



children to perform certain activities are also to be used as flash material. 
The one who first reads the direction carried it out. The pupil who had 
three such opportunities in succession was given a sheet with similar work 
in silent reading. This finished he returned to the group. 

Type Lesson 3. Silent reading for the purpose of oral reproduction and 
comprehension. 

Type Lesson 4. Silent reading in search of a given phrase, answer, idea, 
or suggestion in the content of Supplementary Books, Geography Text, 
Arithmetic Text and blackboard work. 

Type Lesson 5. Differentiation for pupils who confuse similar words 
or miscall syllables, guess at words, or omit endings. Lists like the following 
form the basis of such work. Lists are compiled from actual mistakes made 
by children. 



that 


every 


prettily 


lying 


when 


never 


probably 


buying 


what 


even 


lovingly 


tired 


then 


ever 


companions 


tried 


how 


very 


understand 


certain 


who 


these 


understood 


curtain 


then 


those 


laughingly 




there 


now 


quietly 




than 


know 


swimming 




women 


beautiful 


board 




man 


beautifully 


close 




woman 


prettiest 


chose 





Type Lesson 6. Lessons in accuracy for those who make errors, sub- 
stitutions, and omissions, reading a page and counting errors, or reading 
until they make an error to see how many lines they can read perfectly. 

Type Lesson 7. Breathing exercises. Children are taught to breathe 
rhythmically at ends of phrases or clauses instead of breaking the smooth- 
ness of reading. Practice in breath control is thus related to the problem 
of meaning and interpretation. Abdominal breathing is taught. 

Type Lesson 8. Articulation exercises for mumblers, or those with 
voice or other bad speech habits. 

Type Lesson 9. Voice work and expression. Unpleasant voice quality, 
and monotony corrected by special practice and training. Children are 
taught to vary meaning by change of stress. Punctuation is studied for the 
same purpose. 

A pupil who was found deficient in any of these phases of 
reading was expected to take training in that particular phase 



376 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

until proficiency was attained. This means that the periods 
of training varied in number with the needs of the individual 
pupils. In addition to this, a great deal of reading was done. 
The plan seems to be a combination of the direct and indirect 
plans which have already been discussed. 

The charts and graphs accompanying the article show that 
the progress made by the different pupils was highly satisfactory. 
In a personal conference which the writer had with Miss Zirbes, 
she emphasized the fact that such a procedure rationalized the 
whole reading process for the children. As a result, they saw 
the reason for everything they were required to do, and in this 
way their attitude was made very receptive toward the training. 

Other training conducted by teachers as a part of the regular 
school work has been reported by Lloyd and Gray (i6). Various 
types of training were summarized by these investigators and 
furnished in the following form to each teacher in the school 
system where the experiment was conducted: 

I. Intensive training in work structure 

Give training in phonics and word analysis. Train to work out unknown 
words syllable by syllable. As much practice in oral reading both at home 
and school as possible. 

II. Increased vocabulary 

This is training in word structure also, but a less fundamental type is 
needed. Train in the power to work out a new word. Make lists of words 
which pupils do not recognize immediately, for training in ready recognition 
and comprehension. These lists should be typewritten and frequently prac- 
ticed upon by the pupil. As much practice in oral reading as possible. 

III. Training in accurate recognition 

Urge a close inspection of words before pronounci.ig them. Keep the 
thought of the selection uppermost, so that the pupil will feel the meaning 
destroying effect of substitutions, insertions, and omissions. This can be 
done by close questioning. 

Let the group read competitively, counting the number of errors in a given 
amount of matter. Let pupils read until an error is made, to see how many 
lines can be read perfectly. 

Use the "looking ahead" device described under VI. At the beginning of 
this type of training count the number of errors, including repetitions, made 



THE LITERATURE 377 

in reading a given passage. After two or three weeks have the same passage 
read as a test of the success of the training. 

IV. Di^fferentiation of words 

This should be used in both cases I and III, that is for pupils who are 
being trained in the analysis of words and in accurate recognition. Type- 
written lists of words like the following, compiled from the actual mistakes 
of children who confuse similar words and miscall syllables, should be studied 
and practiced upon for immediate differentiation: 



that 


every 


now 


tired 


road 


what 


never 


know 


tried 


roads 


when 


even 


close 


certain 


from 


then 


very 


chose 


curtain 


for 


how 


these 


lying 


farmer 


etc. 


who 


those 


buying 


farming 




then 


they 


quite 


fish 




there 


their 


quiet 


fishing 





V. Training in quick perception 

These are methods to widen the perceptual span and quicken the recog- 
nition of familiar words: 

I. See that the book is held far enough away from the eyes to take in 
several words at a glance. 

2 Eliminate all place-keeping devices. 

3. Short-exposure methods: Make flash cards by pasting on small cards 
phrases cut from current printed matter. Arouse competition among the 
pupils to see how many flashes are necessary for the recognition of the 
phrase. Small cards can be held close to the group. Larger cards containing 
phrases cut from advertisements, hand-bills, etc., may be flashed upon a 
larger group at a greater distance 

Words written on the black board and covered may be uncovered for a 
fraction of a second. 

VI. Training in accuracy of interpretation 

1. Reading carefully, emphasizing the elements upon which meaning 
depends; e.g., topic sentence, relational words, and effect of different 
phrases and clauses. This is to be oral, with questions and instruction 
by the teacher. 

2. Reading competitively in silence to answer definite questions or to 
tell everything in the passage. Searching for essential points in any subject. 

3. Making the phrase the unit of meaning. 

a. Have group pick out the meaningful phrases in matter under dis- 



378 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

cussion. Have matter read properly, showing the grouping of the words 

in the phrase by means of the voice. 

b. In oral reading have pupil look ahead to be sure he can read through 

the next meaningful group of words before uttering them. 

4. Building a background of meaning. An intensive study of word and 
phrase; of prefixes, suffixes, roots, synonyms, and equivalent idiomatic 
phrases. This is somewhat the same method as that described under II, 
but the emphasis here is upon meaning rather than recognition. 

These methods will not all be used perhaps with any group, nor with 
every individual in the group. The method, or methods to be used must 
be chosen by the teacher with reference to the needs of the group, and only 
the teacher who works with them daily is capable of choosing. Perhaps the 
methods most used will be numbers i and 2, with number 2 the most com- 
mon. Some individuals, however, will need the prescriptions of numbers 
3 and 4. 

VII. Silent speed and quick interpretation drills 

1. Short selections to be read in a given time, or read competitively to 
see how soon they can be finished. These should be timed to the second, 
and the rates of the different pupils made known. Questions must be asked 
or reproduction demanded to insure thought concentration. This should 
sometimes be written, sometimes oral. 

2. Longer selections to be read rapidly for the story or to find a certain 
number of interesting facts. 

VIII. Type of material 

All the exercises preceding require interesting material well within the 
comprehension of the pupils. This may be found in the grade readers, sup- 
plementary readers, readers of a lower grade, geography readers, histories, 
easy h3'giene, or children's story books. Whatever is used, it must be care- 
fully selected beforehand. To depend upon the inspiration of the moment 
to choose the practice matter will seriously endanger the success of the work. 
The selection of the material is one of the most difficult and artistic phases 
of the teacher's remedial efforts. 

In the training for comprehension a somewhat more difficult material, 
though no less interesting, may be used. 

IX. Outside reading 

The pupil who reads only his school books will never learn to read. The 
more home reading the group does, either for pure pleasure or under the 
stimulus of ambition to learn to read, the more bountifully will your efforts 
at training be rewarded. Do everything possible to induce home reading. A 
room library made up of the books owned by individual pupils, a group 



THE LITERATURE 379 

library, a book loaned by some other pupil, or selected out of the school 
library — these together with interesting short stories may help. 

X. Fathers and mothers 

The teacher should tell the parents what she is trying to do for the pupil. 
They will appreciate it, and with a little advice on her part may help. Many 
will be glad to buy suitable reading matter. 

She should find out whether the parents read to the pupil. If they do, 
she should insist that such a practice be stopped and show them the damage 
they are doing their child. 

Accompanying this description of the remedial work, a list 
of her pupils was furnished each teacher with the type of training 
which should be given each. The training suggested for each 
child was determined by the process of diagnosis used by these 
authors. The various teachers were given only very general 
directions for carrying out the work. Some teachers arranged 
their classes in groups and gave the necessary training to each 
group. Others modified their entire plan of teaching so that 
every child in the class was given more or less of the remedial 
work. The training resulted in very large increases in the effi- 
ciency of certain children and in very small increases in that of 
others. If averages are taken as a measure of attainments for 
both the practice group and for groups not given the training, 
the results indicate that the special training is more effective than 
is the usual training given by these teachers. 

The effects of the various types of training as set forth in the 
preceding discussions cannot fail to convince teachers that such 
work is highly desirable. It should be understood that the 
necessity for such training grows out of individual differences 
in the ability to acquire the highly complex habits involved in 
the reading process. As a result, the regular work of the school, 
which usually gives the same amount of training to all pupils, 
is not ample to develop all factors involved in the reading 
process to a degree which makes for efficiency in the reading of 
all children. For this reason, individual remedial work should 
begin in the. early years of the school. If this were done, the 



380 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

necessity for it would in a large measure be eliminated in the 
upper grades. Such a procedure would cause the teacher to 
consider the remedial work as a regular part of her daily pro- 
gram. It would be better still if the teacher did not think of 
such measures as remedial, but as variations which should be 
made in general methods to care for individual needs. Another 
important point is that remedial work cannot be reduced to 
mere routine. The success of such work depends in a large 
measure upon the energy and ingenuity of the teacher. Every 
case has its individual variations and demands variations in the 
methods used. 



CHAPTER XXII 

VARIATIONS IN METHODS TO MEET THE NEEDS 
REVEALED BY DIAGNOSIS 

This chapter has for its purpose a more detailed discussion 
of the various remedial measures. These measures divide them- 
selves into those which are general in nature and those which 
are individual in nature. The discussion will be devoted first 
to the general measures. 

General Remedial Measures 

A general method is one which seeks to place the attain- 
ments of all children in a class or school system on a higher 
plane. This type of method is of interest at this time, because 
the higher the average of the class the less the occasion for diag- 
nosis and remedies. Two problems will be discussed in this 
connection. One of these is concerned with the desirability of 
making children conscious of the processes which enter into their 
reading habits, and the other has to do with differences between 
oral and silent reading. 

Making Children Conscious of Their Reading Habits 

As reading is usually taught, very little is done to make 
children conscious of the activities which enter into their read- 
ing process. To them, reading has no interest except as they get 
meaning by it. The process itself is entirely unknown to them. 
Some teachers have found, however, that children may become 
very much interested in the various phases of the reading process 
and that such an interest may be made a direct means of in- 
creasing their efficiency. It is very easy to get children to under- 
stand the significance of the span of perception or of any other 

381 



382 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

element involved in reading. Definite methods for increasing 
the efficiency of children in these various respects can be given 
and the pupils encouraged to observe the breathing coordina- 
tions, the eye-movements, or the amount of vocalization in the 
reading of other children. This general plan was followed by 
Miss Zirbes in her diagnostic and remedial work, and it is 
probably one of the elements which made for its success. 

Differences between Oral and Silent Reading 

These differences will be discussed from three different stand- 
points, as follows: (i) differences in the aims; (2) differences 
in methods; (3) differences in reading materials. 

Differences in Aims 

The necessity for a clear understanding of the aims of these 
two types of reading is due, first, to the fact that there are funda- 
mental psychological differences existing between them, and, 
second, to the fact that there is in the schools at the present 
time a decided tendency to decrease the amount of ora' reading 
and substitute for it silent reading. 

The aims of oral and silent reading vary with the stages or 
periods of development in the school life of the child. The school 
recognizes three distinct stages in the development of reading 
ability. The first of these periods is the time during which the 
child gets the form or mechanics of reading. The second stage 
allows the habits initiated in the primary period to be perfected. 
In the third stage the child should be trained in applying his 
silent reading training to different kinds of school work, and his 
oral reading work should be extended to include the finer ele- 
ments of interpretation. In other words, the aims of oral read- 
ing should be different from the aims of silent reading, because 
the two types of reading are fundamentally different in the men- 
tal processes involved, and because, if clear cut aims and purposes 
are not set forth for each of these types, one or the other must 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 383 

suffer on account of the small amount of emphasis placed upon 
it. In the past, silent reading has not received due emphasis 
because its value was not clearly seen by teachers, while at 
present it seems that oral reading is to have too little time 
devoted to it because its fundamental aims and purposes are 
not appreciated. 

Reading in the Primary Grades. This period takes up the 
first two years of the school life and in many cases a part or all 
of the third 5^ear. The purpose of oral reading during this time 
is to teach the mechanics of this subject. The mechanics of 
reading deals with most of the factors which have already been 
discussed. It involves those habits which are necessary for 
rapid interpretation, for the analysis of words, and for the estab- 
lishment of a visual vocabulary. In addition to this, the be- 
ginning of habits required in the perception of words and in the 
motor processes must be partially established. It is also neces- 
sary that certain laws which have to do with the hygiene of 
reading should be learned. The main problem is to initiate 
these various habits at this time rather than to attempt to per- 
fect them. 

During the primary period the child has little need for silent 
reading. He is not yet able to comprehend any faster than he 
can read orally. The only reason for requiring silent reading 
at this time is that it is more convenient for the school and that 
in this way the form or mechanics of such reading may be ac- 
quired. The early development of silent reading is little under- 
stood. It is clear, however, that such reading is silent only in 
that the vowel sounds are absent. It involves all the motor 
coordinations of oral reading except the movements of the vocal 
cords. Gradually the vocalization movements and the breath- 
ing coordinations as required in oral reading are eliminated. 
It must also be true that the span of perception is gradually 
lengthened and the eye-movements adjusted to it. 

Arguments are sometimes made to the effect that all reading 
in the primary grades should be silent. There are, however, 



384 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

several good reasons why oral reading should prevail during 
the primary period. First, it is exceedingly doubtful if the 
analysis of words can be taught in the beginning except orally. 
It is a matter of dealing with sounds as sounds. It is true that 
later the process becomes mental, but this is because the pupil 
has had an earlier oral experience with the sounds. A second 
reason for oral training in primary reading is that it employs a 
method with which the pupil is already familiar. Every child 
uses and is familiar with oral language, and oral reading is 
closely related to this. A third reason lies in the fact that meth- 
ods of checking oral reading are much more simple and more 
easily employed than are the methods for checking silent reading. 
Checks in silent reading involve questions, reproductions, etc. 
These methods depend upon language ability in a considerable 
degree and are therefore difficult to use in the early stages of 
reading. A fourth reason for the oral procedure is that it seems 
better not to begin silent reading until the child feels a need for 
it. This need comes when his powers of recognition and inter- 
pretation exceed his rate of vocalization. A great deal of empha- 
sis has been put upon the fact that silent reading is either not 
taught or very much delayed, but little has been said about forc- 
ing the child into it before he has any real need for it. It is not 
intended to argue that all primary reading should be oral, but 
it seems clear that it should be essentially oral. 

Reading in the Intermediate Grades. The reading instruction 
of this period should have for its purpose the development and 
stabilizing of the habits which were initiated during the primary 
period. So far as silent reading is concerned, all vocalization 
and extraneous movements should be eliminated unless there 
is some individual reason for their presence. The span of per- 
ception should be well developed, and the eye-movements 
should become relatively small in number. At the end of the 
fifth year the child should be able to deal with any material 
within his mental grasp in a rapid and accurate manner. This 
is accomplished by having the child read a large amount of 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 385 

interesting material both in school and out of school. Parents 
who read much to their children at this time probably do them 
great harm, because the child must at some time learn to read 
for himself, and this is probably a better time for the formation 
of the reading habit than any other. 

During this period the school should not only encourage 
the child to read but should also supervise the material read. 
In addition to these functions, there is at least one more which 
the school should perform. This has to do with checks. If left 
to himself, the child may develop careless and inaccurate habits 
of reading. The teacher should see that the child is held respon- 
sible for a certain amount of material which he reads, so that 
careless habits will not be established. 

The oral reading of this period should perfect the habits which 
are at the basis of this type of reading and which have been only 
partially established in the primary period. All motor coordi- 
nations should be carefully looked after, accuracy in dealing 
with all types of language forms should be stressed, some ele- 
ments of quality should be taught, and an appreciation of the 
demands of his hearers should be developed on the part of the 
child. 

It is much more difficult to set forth rules of procedure for 
this period than for the preceding one. In general, it seems 
correct to say that a large amount of effort should go into 
silent reading. During this period, the various types of readers 
will be clearly differentiated. The excellent reader will stand 
out prominently both as to silent and oral reading. In the 
same way the poor reader's difficulties make it more and more 
difficult for him to progress, and finally he will stand out 
just as prominently as the excellent reader but in an opposite 
respect. The slow reader will find it impossible to make as 
rapid progress as others, and the inefficient rapid reader will 
find many opportunities to evidence the results of his inaccurate 
methods. Other children will develop into excellent oral readers 
but poor silent readers, and vice versa. Good teaching requires 



386 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

that the teacher be able to recognize these types in the early 
stages of their development. This means that just as a large 
amount of individual work is required in the primary grades 
to establish firmly the mechanics of reading, so there must be 
individual work at this time to perfect those habits which are 
necessary in both oral and silent reading. 

Reading in the Grammar Grades. If facility in the reading 
habit is gained in the preceding period, the child is ready in the 
last part of the sixth year to enter upon the third stage in the 
development of his reading ability. During this period he is to 
be taught specialized types of silent reading. In his early in- 
struction in reading, the child is interested in selections from 
the standpoint of the story or from the standpoint of questions 
to be asked concerning the passages. In this third period of 
training, the child needs to broaden his experience and to begin 
to read in anticipation of needs that will later arise in his school 
work. By this is meant that different school subjects require 
different types of reading, and the success of a pupil in any sub- 
ject depends in part upon his ability to do the specialized type of 
reading required by that subject. The following are a few of the 
purposes which may actuate a pupil under circumstances of 
this kind: 



To find what is required in a certain situation 

To find the arguments made for and against a certain point 

To outline the discussion given upon a certain topic 

To translate a problem from language into sj'^mbols 

To summarize discussion 

To skim over material in order to locate a particular topic 



That the elementary school does not measure up to its full re- 
sponsibility in teaching these specialized types of reading is 
shown by certain criticisms which are made by high school 
teachers concerning the lack of such work in the elementary 
schools. To illustrate, high school teachers of history often say 
that their pupils cannot read historical material in an intelligent 
manner; or mathematics teachers say that their pupils cannot 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 387 

read the problems with which they must deal. The implication 
Oi such criticisms is that the ability to do these types of reading 
should have been developed in the elementary school. While it 
is true that the high school must share in the responsibility for 
the development of these special forms of reading, yet it goes 
without saying that careful and painstaking work of this sort 
:hould be done in the latter part of the elementary school period. 
Any elementary school which sends its pupils to high school 
without some training in the special types of reading required in 
history, geography, mathematics, etc., has failed to a consider- 
able extent in training its pupils. It should be realized by 
teachers of special subjects that their teaching problems are to 
a certain extent reading problems, and to this extent they must 
share the responsibility with the regular reading teacher. Some 
work in determining the nature of such specialized types of read- 
ing has been done by Pressey and Pressey (23) and Greene (18). 
The first of these authors emphasizes that the nature of silent 
reading depends very greatly upon its purpose or aim. Greene 
has shown the inability of students to get the meaning from 
specialized types of material. 

Considerable progress is being made in working out in detail 
the aims for silent reading. In his constructive program for 
silent reading Horn (18) has emphasized five points as follows: 
(i) comprehension, (2) speed, (3) organization, (4) remembering, 
and (5) use of indexes, tables of contents, etc. O'Hern (21) has 
developed a chart of attainments in silent reading. This is 
worked out under four general heads as follows: (i) permanent 
interest in reading, (2) economical and effective study habits 
(3) economical and effective use of books, (4) thorough mastery 
of the mechanics of reading. Definite suggestions for carrying 
out each of these points in each of the school grades are given. 
This is one of the most helpful pieces of work which has appeared. 
Hawley (10) has shown the effects of clear objectives upon the 
reading of a number of children who had difficulty with their 
reading. 



388 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Smith (24) and Lyman (17) have emphasized the value of 
silent reading in high school work. The first of these authors sets 
forth four types of reading which the high school pupil is called 
upon to do. These are as follows: (i) problem solving reading, 
(2) reading for the central idea, (3) reading for information, and 
(4) reading of the narrative type. Lyman stresses the fact that 
students often get the idea that reading is a thing which may be 
done in an easy-going fashion. Reading, according to this 
author, should be taken seriously and should involve a large 
amount of mental effort. The implications of this article are far- 
reaching. If the reading of the American child is done upon a 
low level of mental effort fundamental changes in method should 
be made to meet such conditions. Data which bear out the 
statement of Lyman are to be found in a considerable number of 
investigations in which rate of reading has been very greatly 
increased by different types of training. Chief among these is 
O'Brien's (20) work. The results of this investigation show that 
his subjects were able to read efficiently at a much greater rate 
than they were accustomed to use. Such results seem to bear 
out Lyman's statement that children do their reading upon a 
low level of mental effort, because if the present method of 
teaching reading were correct, it ought not be possible to bring 
about large increases in rate by a relatively small amount of 
practice as O'Brien succeeded in doing. 

The problem involved here is a fundamental one, the solution 
of which will require that much more be known about the 
highest level at which efficient reading can be done, about the 
methods for attaining such a level, and about those elements in 
training which make for the establishment of reading upon too 
low a level of mental activity. 

It is sometimes argued that oral reading could be omitted 
from the curriculum during this period and that all reading done 
in the school at this time might be silent. It is the purpose of the 
discussion at this point to show that oral reading has aims which 
are distinct from those of silent reading and which are of suffi- 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 389 

cient importance to give it a definite place in the curriculum for 
the upper grades of the elementary school. In stating these aims 
it may be well to give first a few negative purposes concerning 
the oral reading of this period. Evidently it is not the purpose 
of oral reading at this time to teach dramatics or elocution or 
expression or public speaking. These may be legitimate at a 
later stage, but there is little or no place in the elementary school 
period for such training, except for a very small number of spe- 
cially gifted children to whom such instruction can be given 
privately. To make the upper grades of the elementary school 
a place where this highly technical training is given is probably 
to miss entirely the point for such training. 

The discussions of various authors will now be referred to as a 
means of obtaining positive suggestions as to the aims for oral 
reading in the upper grades. Many authors content themselves 
with very general distinctions between oral and silent reading. 
To illustrate. Summers (25) says: 

Oral reading is the process of interpreting thought from the printed page 
and imparting it to another by means of the voice. 

Another statement of the same kind is by Farnham (6). This 
author says: 

Reading consists first, in gaining the thoughts of an author from written 
or printed language, second, in giving oral expression to these thoughts in 
the language of the author, so that the same thoughts are conveyed to 
the hearer. 

Many other similar definitions or statements could be given. 
Such general statements are practically worthless to the teacher. 
Such definitions of oral reading are broad enough to include all 
oral reading from that of the primary child to that of the most 
experienced actor. For this reason, such definitions have little 
or no value for one who is attempting to teach oral reading in any 
particular school grade. 

Other authors give much more definite suggestions upon the 
problem at hand. Turner (28) emphasizes six different problems 
for upper grade oral reading. These are as follows: (i) certain 



390 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

language values, such as grouping, connectives, etc., (2) cultiva- 
tion of the imagination, (3) interpreting the spirit of a selection, 
(4) pauses, (5) continuous thinking, and (6) articulation. 

In their discussion of intermediate and grammar grade oral 
reading, Briggs and Coffman (3) emphasize position, articulation 
and enunciation. In their chapter on articulation and enuncia- 
tion they discuss breathing and voice. 

Clark (5) gives four criteria for vocal expression. These 
are time, pitch, quahty, and force. In his discussion of methods 
of instruction he emphasizes the mental attitude of the reader, 
language relations, emotions, and atmosphere. The various 
discussions throughout the book are for the benefit of the 
teacher, so that she may have adequate standards for reading. 
The plea of the book seems to be first for careful, systematic 
silent reading. If such reading is insisted upon oral reading 
will, according to this author, take care of itself. The theory 
of Clark seems to be that impression must be a matter of in- 
struction, but that expression requires no special training. 

Jenkins (12) makes the foUoAving suggestions concerning the 
results to be obtained in primary reading, and it seems that 
they may well be considered in upper grade reading: 

A flexible voice, trained until habits of modulation have become automatic 
in ordinary reading, should be the aim. When the thought is understood 
and the form mastered, the voice naturally falls into a rhythm and melody 
of expression, largely due to the rhythmic movement of the eyes and the 
rhythm of breathing. The more essential parts are emphasized according 
to the ability of the reader, and the result gives pleasure. 

Ready recognition of the more important parts and the ability to render 
them skillfully will come only after much careful teaching has brought these 
parts into consciousness and given opportunity for their use. To dwell upon 
the loud and the soft, the swift and the slow, the joyous and the sad, as 
expressed in specific sentences, brings these elements into the focus of con- 
sciousness and assures steady advance in artistic expression. 

The suggestions of Klapper (14) upon this topic are as follows: 

Despite the inestimable advantages of silent reading, oral reading must 
occupy a coordinate position with it in class teaching for many reasons: 



VARIATIOXS IX METHODS 391 

(a) the teacher must test the child's knowledge of the svinbols. In rapid, 
silent thought reading the child gives no e\'idence of what sjTnbols he does 
not know, (b) Oral reading is a test of the thought acquired. By the voice 
and intonation the teacher knows that the child has the author's idea, (c) 
Clearness and accuracy of articulation and enunciation and correct use of 
voice are desiderata in all oral speech. It is in oral reading that the child's 
limitations in these speech elements are noted and appropriate drills planned 
for the following phonic lessons, (d) Words and phrases have their own 
worth. They add to everj^ pupil's expressional and interpretational vocabu- 
lary. In silent reading words and phrases may be lost in the search for the 
underl>ing thought; in the oral reading words and expressions are given 
almost equal rank mth silent reading in school. The dignity', the force, the 
cadence and the music in literary language can better be felt in oral than in 
silent reading. 

Some of the most helpful suggestions are to be found in Car- 
son's (4) little book on the voice. One quotation may be given, 
as follows: 

Reading, I have said, is not acting. It is the acting which usuallj^ accom- 
panies the reading or recitation of the professional elocutionist which culti- 
vated people especially dislike. \\Tien they wish to see acting, they want 
serious interpretative vocalization; only that and nothing more is necessary^, 
unless it be a spontaneous and graceful movement of the hands, occasionally, 
such as one makes in animated conversation. 

Again, the most elegant way of vocallj^ interpreting a poem, is to read it 
from a book, rather than to recite it. Recitation has much to do with this 
acting business. In fact, elocutionists recite in order to have their arms free 
to act — to illustrate the thought they are expressing. Thought should 
not be helped out by gesture. Gesture results, or should result, from emo- 
tion, and should, therefore, be indefinite. 

Bobbit (2) gives three fundamental reasons for oral reading, 
as follows: (i) in a democracy there should be the ability among 
the citizens to express thought to an audience; (2) there is a 
reflex action of oral reading upon the reader himself which is 
important; (3) oral reading has importance in the primary 
grades because it gives an experience \\nth language which can- 
not be obtained in silent reading. 

This brief survey of the literature upon the purposes of oral 
reading: seems to indicate three rather distinct aims for grammar- 



392 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

grade oral reading. First, there are those phases of oral reading 
which are distinctly physical and objective in their nature; 
second, oral reading gives an appreciation of language which it 
is difi&cult to get in any other way; and third, oral reading 
involves a type of interpretation which is not required by silent 
reading. These aims seem to be of sufficient importance to give 
oral reading a definite place in the curriculum during the gram- 
mar grade period. The first two aims have been discussed at 
some length in the quotations just cited and will not be treated 
further. The last point will be taken up for a more detailed 
discussion in the paragraph which follows. 

Interpretation Required by Oral Reading in the Grammar 
Grades. In beginning this discussion it may be well to compare 
interpretation in silent reading and interpretation which is re- 
quired by oral reading. In silent reading the interpretation is 
rapid, and therefore it is somewhat gross in its nature. It cannot 
involve fine shades of meaning and details. It first seeks the 
larger elements of the thought, and if details are required a 
second or third reading is necessary. In contrast with this, the 
interpretation involved in oral reading is always detailed. It 
requires an appreciation of shades of meaning and of the feelings 
for language relations. To read orally necessitates that the 
reader be able to evaluate in a careful manner different words, 
phrases, and other language units. It is not sufficient to talk of 
these in a perfunctory or formal manner. These relations must 
be felt. They must be one's own. In other words, the purpose 
of oral reading in the grammar grades, from the standpoint of 
interpretation, is to teach a more comprehensive and detailed 
type of interpretation than is required in silent reading. Oral 
reading of this type will always follow a careful study of a selec- 
tion. Oral reading will grow out of a fullness of understanding 
and a desire to express to someone else what is known. The type 
of interpretation sought here is subtle in nature and is to a large 
extent in the realm of feeling. For this reason, the grosser 
checks of silent reading do not suffice in this case. These de- 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 393 

tailed meanings can only be revealed by such elements as em- 
phasis, force, pitch, etc. This type of interpretation will be 
enhanced by having the children listen to good reading. Such 
reading may be done by the teacher or by the best readers in the 
school. These children may often be selected from other grades 
than that in which the recitation is being conducted. 

The importance of training in these finer elements of inter- 
pretation cannot be overemphasized. Its immediate results are 
better methods of expression and better appreciation of meaning. 
If proper methods are used, such training can be made to func- 
tion both in oral and written composition work and in methods 
of study. A criticism of the work of children which is heard 
probably more often than any other is that they are satisfied 
with half meanings, or that they do not pursue their work in a 
detailed and accurate way. The type of work under considera- 
tion will doubtless do as much as any other phase of school 
work to counteract such tendencies on the part of pupils. 
Other points of a similar nature might be made in regard to 
oral reading in the upper grades, but the foregoing is probably 
sufficient to show that any curriculum which eliminates oral 
reading from the grammar grades takes from both the teacher 
and the pupil an important means for developing some of the 
most fundamental phases of language ability. 

Differences in Methods 

Checks. Any reading work, to be effective, must include cer- 
tain checks upon the work of the pupil. This seems to be one of 
the chief difficulties confronting the teacher of silent reading at 
the present time. Motives for silent reading have already been 
given. The point at hand is concerned with whether or not the 
children are able to conform to such motives. One check which 
is often used is written work. The child may reproduce the 
selection in writing, or he may answer a series of questions in 
writing. This gives the recitation the character of an examina- 
tion and leaves the teacher with a body of material to be ex- 



394 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

amined outside of school hours. If such technique is to be effec- 
tive, all mistakes and errors should be carefully analyzed, and 
suggestions should be given which show the child how to obviate 
the same errors at another time. This means that the work 
must go beyond the mere reproduction or answering of questions. 
It must train in the technique of silent reading. 

Another check which may be used is to have the children 
respond orally. This means an oral reproduction, an oral an- 
swer to a question, or an oral outline. This relieves the teacher 
of any later work, and allows the giving of general instruction 
by the teacher. Again the fundamental purpose here is training 
in silent reading and not merely the answering of questions or 
reproduction. 

In oral reading an entirely different type of check must be 
used. Such reading may be evaluated as to its accuracy by 
noting the words mispronounced. This method of checking the 
child's reading many times involves much waste of time. A 
child is corrected for a certain error to-day, and to-morrow he 
makes the same type of mistake. It seems that it would be 
better to neglect many of the small errors which children make 
during their oral reading. If the child has a real problem and 
is interested in it and is working at it, it makes little difference 
if he says "a" for "the," or if he makes other minor errors. 
The main thing is for the reading to proceed in such a manner 
that those who are listening will get the thought. To be sure, 
all gross errors should be corrected; and if a child has a habit of 
repeating one type of error, such should be carefully studied by 
the teacher and proper remedies applied. 

Oral reading may also be checked as to interpretation by 
means of the emphasis, force, pitch of voice, and other elements 
of technique which the child uses in his reading. The efficient 
use of checks of this type is a difficult phase of methods and 
presents problems to the most skillful teachers. 

Other Phases of Method. Typical lessons in silent reading 
have been reported by Heller and Courtis (i8) and by Stone (26). 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 395 

In this same connection Yoakum (i8)'has shown the results of a 
single reading and Germane (i8) has compared outlining and 
summarizing with rereading as methods of study. 

Materials for Reading 

One of the vital factors in developing reading ability is the 
amount of reading done. Very often the excellent reader is one 
who reads a great deal, whereas the poor reader is one who reads 
but little. The opposite of this statement is also true in many 
cases. That is, the pupil who reads but little is a good reader, 
and the one who reads a great deal is a poor reader. In other 
words, reading is a habit which must be developed by practice. 
The realization of this fact has led in most schools to the supple- 
menting of the reading material found in the child's text. At 
the present time no school is considered well equipped which 
does not have more or less supplementary material. In many 
instances, the supplementary texts furnish selections which are 
very similar to that in the basic text. Indeed, there seems to be 
no reason why the usualform of text-book should be employed 
in preference to the supplementary texts because the basic texts 
furnish only material which is to be found in most of the supple- 
mentary books. In other words, the basic text serves very few, 
if any, purposes different from those of the supplementary texts. 
However, if texts were supplied for the various grades which 
brought together material so selected as to be well adapted for 
the development of a certain technique of reading, then there 
would be a real need for them. To illustrate, a teacher may be 
confronted with the problem of developing in certain pupils the 
ability to read silently, for any one of the many purposes enumer- 
ated on a preceding page. To develop any one of these aims 
requires a body of well-selected material. If a text supplied 
such material, it would be a very great aid to the teacher. Texts 
as they are often written do not do this. They supply only mate- 
rial for more extensive reading and not for intensive reading of a 
particular type. The usual form of texts should be read as any 



396 REMEDL\L MEASURES 

other book. It seems desirable, then, that the child should have 
access almost from the first of his training period in reading to a 
number of well selected books which furnish him wdth reading 
material in which he is interested and which is expressed in a 
form which makes it possible for him to read it. 

The development of the technique of silent reading requires 
many different t\pes of material. If the aim is rapid silent read- 
ing, the selection should be within the grasp of the children; 
but if the aim is accurate interpretation, the material should be 
relatively difficult. For other purposes, it may be desirable to 
use the narrative form of prose, and for still other purposes 
scientific prose may be the proper form of material. 

Still another factor which must be taken into consideration 
in the selection of material for teaching silent reading is the 
check which is to be used. If reproduction is to be used, mate- 
rial which can be reproduced with not too great difficulty should 
be selected. On the other hand, if some other t}^e of check is 
to be used, material should be selected which is adapted to the 
particular form of check which is to be employed. 

Without doubt one of the difficulties which confronts teachers 
who are attempting to teach silent reading is the lack of a body 
of well-selected material. To buy a set of supplementary readers 
may be wasteful, because much of the material in such readers 
would probably not lend itself to any definite problem which 
may be before the teacher. From this standpoint a step in 
advance is marked by the fact that bodies of material for silent 
reading are appearing in the form of a series of texts. 

The problem of selecting material for oral reading is almost as 
difficult as in the case of silent reading. Here again it is a prob- 
lem of procuring material which is adapted to a particular 
problem. Some teachers make the mistake of using all selections 
which are studied silently as exercises in oral reading. Such a 
procedure is based upon the assumption that the same selection 
is always adapted to both oral and silent reading. Such an 
assumption may be questioned. Many selections may be 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 397 

excellent material for silent reading, but at the same time have 
very little value for oral reading, and vice versa. 

In making selections for oral reading the interest of the hearer 
should be considered. In many instances no one in the class 
should be familiar with the selection to be read except the pupil 
who does the reading. Under these conditions the child who 
reads should receive his instruction and training in reading the 
selection individually, and the recitation should show the result 
of such instructions. On other occasions, when it is the purpose 
of the teacher to give definite instructions in oral reading, a 
text should be provided. A second requirement of material for 
oral reading is that it should be within the grasp of the reader. 
Oral reading represents the effort of the reader to give out some- 
thing. It represents the reader's contribution for the pleasure 
and instruction of the listener. In this case the material read 
must be virtually the reader's own. He must know it, under- 
stand it, and feel it. In no other case can oral reading be suc- 
cessful. A third requirement is that the selection be worth while 
to the reader. He should be interested in it and really desire to 
convey it to the hearer. As a fourth requirement it may be 
pointed out that at least a part of the oral selections should be 
of such a type that their best interpretation comes through an 
oral presentation. If these various requirements are considered, 
it is clear that no compilation of selections has been made which 
fulfills all these conditions. An ideal provision would probably 
include a text for the class and a considerable number of books 
for individual work. Other phases of reading material have 
been studied by Starch (i8). Packer (i8), and Stone (27). 

Individual Remedial Measures 

Preceding discussion has served to point out certain processes 
which seem to be essential to efficient reading. The process of 
diagnosis has shown that difficulties in reading are many times 
due to either underdevelopment or overdevelopment of certain 
of these processes. In most cases the difficulties resulting from 



398 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

such conditions are individual matters. Remedial measures of 
the individual type are used in dealing with single pupils or with 
pupils in very small groups, so that needs of the individual 
child may be cared for. Individual measures divide themselves 
into those which are indirect in their procedure and those which 
are direct in their methods. A direct method seeks to bring 
about results by giving training which would result in an increase 
or a decrease in one or more factors which are involved in read- 
ing ability. For example, if it is found that a slow reader has a 
span of perception which is underdeveloped, training to increase 
this might be designated as a direct measure. On the other hand, 
if in the same case a large amount of reading was required of 
the reader, this would be an indirect method of attack. In 
general it may be said that the indirect methods intensify the 
usual methods of instruction. 

Direct Methods 

In this part of the discussion training which is concerned with 
the various processes which enter into reading ability will be 
treated. 

Span of Perception. Practice of this kind, to be effective, 
should come early in the school experience of the child. Such 
drill can be given individually or to small groups. In conducting 
this type of work the flash-card plan has most often been used. 
This has the difficulty of having no adequate control of the time. 
If such work is to be effective, this element should be carefully 
controlled. For individual work the apparatus shown on page 
309 can be used to advantage. The material for this form of 
apparatus is easily prepared by means of a typewriter. The 
best type of apparatus for group instruction is a stereopticon 
lantern the lens of which is mounted in a photographic shutter. 
The best shutter for this purpose is called the Ilex Shutter. This 
may be had from Burke & James, Chicago. If the lens with 
which the lantern is fitted is sent to this firm, they will mount the 
lens in the shutter. The expense of the lantern and the mount- 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 399 

ing of the lens is not excessive. By means of this shutter the time 

of exposure can be varied as the material or the children who are 

being trained may require. The material should be selected as 

is done for the flash-card work and made into the form of lantern 

» 

slides. Such slides can usually be made at a local photographer's. 
If training of this type is given under these conditions with young 
children, it will prove much more effective than the usual work 
with flash cards. 

Qualitative Phases of Perception. This type of ability is funda- 
mental to an analytical knowledge of words. It is based upon 
both practice and knowledge. This kind of work is usually 
called for in phonics. It is true that the emphasis in teaching 
phonics is usually placed upon sounds, and that the form of 
words is emphasized only as a means of making clear the auditory 
elements of language. It is altogether probable that more 
emiphasis should be placed upon the form of words. In such 
work differences in letters, syllables, and words should be em- 
phasized. 

Motor Phases of Reading 

Reducing the Amount of Vocalization in Silent Reading 

Types of Children. When teachers attempt to decrease this 
element in the silent reading of their pupils, they should remem- 
ber that there are apparently two types of children with respect 
to this phase of reading. For one of these types the vocalization 
is a habit carried over from the early experiences of the child, 
while in the other case it may be a fundamental element in 
reading. Strictly speaking, the reduction of vocalization should 
not be undertaken unless the child belongs in the former class. 
Such a distinction between the two types often is difficult to 
make. If the child is decidedly motor in other activities, it 
may be expected that he will be motor in his reading. If, on 
the other hand, a child is not motor, but employs much vocal- 
ization in his reading, it is fairly safe to conclude that the vocal- 
ization is a habit and that corrective measures may be applied. 



400 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Rate of Reduction. Still another problem in this connection 
is the rate at which such reduction should be made. The best 
method of procedure is for the teacher to discuss the problem 
with the child and so enlist his cooperation. Frequent tests 
might be used to determine the effect of the practice. It is 
highly desirable that the reading of each child be watched, and 
if it is seen that efhciency in comprehension is decreasing, it 
would certainly be desirable to discontinue the practice. 

Rate of Vocalization 

Two elements enter into this phase of reading ability. These 
are muscular reaction and familiarity with language forms. It 
is doubtful if the first factor is affected by practice except in a 
small degree. There are certain pupils who seem to react slowly 
in every way. Speed drills in which comprehension is not 
emphasized should be used. In such drill, the child may be 
required to read rapidly regardless of the results. In some cases 
children seem never to have experienced the sensations which 
accompany rapid reading. After these are once experienced, 
there is some tendency left to return to them. The second 
element will be discussed under another head. 

Eye-movements 

It should be remembered that the movements of the eyes 
are of such a nature that there is very little to guide the reader 
in making them. If the eye is focused on the first word of a line, 
there are no objective cues or signs which direct it to its next 
stopping place. Furthermore, if the eye is at the end of a line, 
there is nothing of an objective nature to guide it in its move- 
ment to the beginning of the next line. Attention has also 
been called to the part which rhythm plays in the movements 
of the eyes. Again, there is nothing of an objective nature which 
determines the rhythm. There seems to be no reason why an 
element which is as important as eye-movements in reading 
should not be called to the attention of all children. They 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 401 

should first be told about it, and then be allowed to observe 
these movements in the reading of other children by means of 
a mirror. This could be followed by suggestions that they make 
an effort to reduce the number of their movements as much as 
possible. If this method of training fails, another plan may be 
tried. In such cases material should be prepared as shown be- 
low. The dots above each line indicate the letter where the 



At last Tim began to feel tired; he hurt his foot with a 

• sharp stump. A fat yellow frog jumped up in his face 

and so startled him that he nearly fell backwards into 

the water. He was frightened, and had culled more 

kingcups than he could carry. So he scrambled out, and 

climbed the bank, and cleaned himself up as well as he 

could with a small cotton pocket handkerchief, and thought 

he would go on to school. 

eyes should be focused, and the alternate indentation at the left 
will help in guiding the eye in its sweep from right to left. Such 
material may be read while the teacher observes the reading 
by means of a mirror. Such a procedure should give a check 
upon the success of the child in carrying out the directions. The 
child should be allowed to repeat the reading of the passage 
until the proper movements are established for that selection. 



402 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Extraneous Movements 

In those cases where such movements indicate a general 
lack of adjustment to the reading situation, there is usually a 
decided decrease in such reactions when the reading improves. 
This means that one method of dealing with such a situation is to 
let it alone, and effect improvement by increasing efficiency in 
other phases of the reading process. A second method is to dis- 
cuss the matter with the child, pointing out that an improvement 
in his reading could be brought about by the elimination of such 
movements. Children for whom the extraneous movements 
constitute a habit will be able to reduce such movements by a 
little extra effort. In others the difficulty may be much more 
deeply seated, and more time and effort will be necessary to get 
results. 

Breathing 

Types of Breathing. There are three types of breathing, the 
high chest, the dorsal, and the diaphragmatic. In the first type 
only the upper part of the lungs is brought into use. This form 
is usually sharply criticized by instructors. The second type 
is produced almost entirely by the raising and lowering of the 
ribs, while the third is produced by the raising and lowering of 
the diaphragm. Most authors agree that the best form of 
breath control results from a combination of the last two types> 
Exercises in which the children are required to place their hand 
on different parts of the thoracic region in order to feel the 
different movements are of very great help in teaching correct 
breathing. 

Conservation of Breath. A second important point in regard 
to breathing is the conservation of the breath. It has already 
been pointed out that in the breathing curves the inspiration is 
shorter and the expiration period is longer than in ordinary 
breathing. All oral reading should begin by filling the lungs 
with air. This is easily done, but the conservation of it so that 
the reading may continue is the difficult part of the procedure. 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 403 

Some children will expel nearly all their breath with the first 
syllable and then gasp for more. Reading of this type is accom- 
panied by a series of gasps. There are other children who suc- 
ceed better than those indicated above, but their reading sounds 
as if they had "run down" when they get near the end of a sen- 
tence. Children who have difficulty with their breathing 
coordinations need practice in reading passages with points for 
breathing marked, as shown below. The child should be 
required to take in breath at the beginning, and then is expected 
to read to the first mark without further inspiration. 

"While they stood talking, | two immense serpents rose out 
of the sea | and made towards the camp. | Some of the people 
took flight, I others were transfixed with terror; | but all, | near 
and far, | watched this new omen. | Rearing their crests, | the 
serpents crossed the shore, | swift, | shining, | terrible as a risen 
flood I that descends upon a helpless town. | Straight through 
the crowd they swept, | and seized the priest Laocoon where he 
stood, I with his two sons, | and wrapped them all round and 
round in fearful coils. | There was no chance of escape. | Father 
and sons perished together; | and | when the monsters had de- 
voured the three men, | into the sea they slipped again, | leaving 
no trace of the horror." | 

When a point is reached, there should be a distinct pause and 
a full inspiration. In this manner the reading should continue 
until the passage is completed. In such training the breathing 
will necessarily be at first a conscious process, but as training 
proceeds it becomes habitual. 

Breathing Pauses. A third phase of the breathing problem 
is the location of the breath pauses. It is generally understood 
that breath may be taken at a period, a colon, a semicolon, or 
a comma. In music it seems to be good form to breathe before 
a preposition, an adverb, a relative pronoun, and, when neces- 
sary for emphasis, before an adjective which comes after a noun. 
It will be seen immediately that this is closely related to phras- 
ing. By phrasing is meant a grouping of the words which enter 



404 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

into a passage, for the purpose of bringing out the meaning of 
the selection. Such grouping can take place only when there is 
a thorough understanding of the meaning of the selection. If 
a passage involves difficulties for the child in interpretation, 
phrasing can take place only after there has been a careful and 
detailed study of the selection which has made clear the meaning. 
In the practice of the experienced reader, phrasing is accom- 
plished most often by the anticipation of meaning. In the case 
of the child who has had little experience in reading, some other 
method must be used. It is well understood that a careful study 
of a selection is necessary before oral reading of it is attempted. 
The location and marking of the best places for breathing pauses 
may be a part of this work, and the oral reading drills should 
include training upon the proper breathing coordinations. In 
conclusion, then, there are three types of work in connection 
with breathing. First, the child should be made conscious of his 
breathing movements and given exercises which will develop the 
proper t\T3e. Second, the conservation of the breath must be 
taught. Third, the proper location of breathing pauses should 
be emphasized. 

Language Ability 

There are three important factors in language ability as it is 
involved in reading. These factors exhibit themselves as 
ability in analysis, as ability in synthesis, and as ability in 
dealing with language relations. The first is usually cared for 
in phonics. The second is given as flash-card work or better as 
quick perception work. The third has been treated in detail 
by Turner (i6). The reader is referred to this book for further 
study upon the problem. 

Accuracy in Oral Reading 

Almost the entire technique of oral reading as it is usually 
taught bears upon this problem; hence it does not seem worth 
while to enter into a detailed discussion concerning it. 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 405 

Quality of Oral Reading 

The methods involved here have been well treated in Clark's 
(4) book as well as in others of like nature. A careful study of 
books of this type is recommended for those who are interested in 
such problems. 
Remedial Measures for Different Types of Readers 

It is now the purpose of the writer to consider remedial 
measures which may be used in dealing with the various types 
of readers. 

Type I. The Efficient Reader 

No remedial work is needed, but the teacher should see that 
such children have plenty of supplementary reading material. 
In many cases children of this type will be benefited little by the 
regular recitation work in reading. They may be allowed to 
spend this time in supplementary reading or in some other type 
of work. 

Type II. The Inefficient Reader 

The ineflficiency of this class shows itself not alone in one 
phase of reading, but in most aspects of the process. In very 
few cases can pupils of this class be made efficient readers. 
Wherever possible they should be put in special classes and 
given intensive training. 

Indirect Measures. Such children need to read more. They 
are the pupils for whom the regular time given to reading is not 
sufficient. Owing to the importance of reading, it seems that 
much extra time should be devoted to reading for this group. 
At first this supplementary work should be done in the school, 
but lat«r the child should be encouraged to read at home. In 
many cases it will be necessary to enlist the cooperation of the 
parents, because reading for children of this type is a tedious 
and laborious process, and therefore not one which they enjoy. 

Direct Measures. It will be found that most of the methods 



406 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

used in the early stages of reading need to be continued in the 
later reading of the pupils in this group. Perception work as 
previously described will be found very necessary. Every 
type of motor coordination should be carefully noted and 
measures adopted to increase efficiency. A great deal of atten- 
tion should be given to the different phases of language ability 
required in reading, and an effort should be made to have the 
reading done at a high level of attention. In so far as possible 
the material read should fit into their experiences, so that the 
apperceptive factors may be effective. 

Type III. The Slow Reader 

This is the pupil who comprehends what is read but who 
reads so little as to make the reading very inefficient. 

Indirect Measures. The reading of supplementary exercises 
both in school and out should be emphasized. This should 
always be done at a high level of attention. Frequent speed 
drills should be given. The purpose of these is to give the child 
the sensations which'' go along with more rapid reading, than he 
usually does. A check upon comprehension after these drills is 
important, because sometimes it is found that the child is 
able to comprehend as much in the speed drills as in ordinary 
reading. 

Direct Measures. Short exposure exercises should be em- 
phasized for the purpose of increasing the span of perception 
and giving a synthetic knowledge of language. A careful study 
of the motor phases of reading should be made to bring about 
the proper coordinations. In this connection eye-movements 
should receive special attention. 

Language Relations. In the upper grades special work which 
emphasizes various language relations should be stres^d. In 
many cases stress should be placed upon synonyms and upon 
expressions similar in meaning. With some children it may be 
necessary to give drill in phonics. 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 407 

Type IV. Rapid Readers 

This group includes those who read too rapidly for efficiency. 
The usual caution given these pupils is that they should be 
careful to understand what they read. This procedure is not 
always of the best, because the problem is to increase compre- 
hension if possible without a decrease in rate. If a plan can 
be devised which will allow the usual rate and at the same time 
make for an increase in comprehension, such a method is pref- 
erable. 

Indirect Measures. Encourage much reading. This should 
be done with material in which the pupil is interested and from 
which he is anxious to get the meaning. Another plan which 
seems to make for efficiency is to give these pupils a definite 
purpose or problem for their reading. It may be a matter of 
answering questions, of reproduction, of outlining, or of memoriz- 
ing, or may be done for any other purpose which furnishes a defi- 
nite end to the reading. There is entirely too much reading 
which has the form of reading but is lacking in any fundamental 
aim or ^wifpose. It is entirely probable that this aimless sort of 
reading has much to do with producing reading habits of the 
type under consideration. 

Direct Measures. In order to develop language ability, all 
forms of training which have to do with this phase of reading 
ability should be emphasized. This will include practice in 
analysis and synthesis, in language relations, and in meanings. 
It is probable that this type of training will most nearly over- 
come the difficulty. 

Type V. Efficient Oral Readers, Inefficient 
Silent Readers 

In this group there are those children who have not been able 
to differentiate in their reading between those methods which 
make for efficient oral reading and those which make for efficient 
silent reading. 



408 REMEDIAL MEASURES 

Indirect Methods. The emphasis here should be upon the 
teaching of silent reading. It should be determined in which 
stage the child is, so far as his silent reading is concerned as pre- 
viously discussed, and the measures adopted should be suited 
to his needs. 

Direct Measures. A careful study of the different phases of 
reading ability as exhibited in children who belong in this group 
should be made before any direct measures are attempted. 
Special attention should be given to eye-movements and to the 
span of perception. 

Type V also includes those pupils whose recognition is suffi- 
ciently rapid for oral reading but not for efficient silent reading. 

Indirect Measures. Such children should be encouraged to 
read a great deal. In certain cases these children do not like to 
read. Care should be taken to see that parents do not read to 
them, and attention should be given to the eyes to see that the 
vision is periect. 

Direct Measures. Those measures which will give facility in 
the recognition of language forms should be emphasized. These 
may be quick perception exercises and exercises in language 
relations, as well as those measures which have to do with 
analysis and synthesis. 

Type VL Efficient Silent Readers, Inefficient 
Oral Readers 

It is evident that pupils of this type should be taught oral 
reading by the most careful methods. These forms of training 
should include a careful study of the meaning of the selection 
to be read. The value of the important words, phrases, and 
other groups of words in the selections studied should be pointed 
out. Punctuation marks, breathing points, and other phases 
of the selection should all be emphasized. After this is carefully 
done, it may be necessary for the teacher to read the selection 
before the pupil attempts it. If such a plan is followed carefully, 
it should be of very great assistance to the pupil. Another 



VARIATIONS IN METHODS 409 

important feature of such work should be its motivation. 
Every means should be used to lead children to desire to succeed 
in this type of work. 

Exercises and Questions 

1 . What distinctions are to be made between remedial teaching and the 
usual instruction of the school? 

2. In what sense is all teaching in the subject of reading remedial teach- 
ing? 

3. Classify the pupils in your class from the standpoint of the six types 
already discussed. Do this first by means of observation, and later check 
your judgment by the methods of diagnosis. 

4 How does such a classification give point to your instruction? 

5. Do you give as much attention to the good readers in your class as 
you give to the poor readers? If not, why so? 

6. To what extent are the problems of history teacher and geography 
teacher reading problems? 

7. Should history and geography teachers be expected to do remedial 
work? 

8. To what extent must the development of reading ability be shared 
by all teachers? 

9. What demands outside the school are operating to produce rapid 
and accurate reading on the part of children? What part does the moving 
picture show play in this? 

10. Study some selection with the idea of determining those words, 
phrases, or sentences upon which the meaning of the passage depends. How 
can this type of work be used in instruction in comprehension? 

11. What distinctions should be made between the assignments for oral 
reading and for silent reading recitations? 

12. What is the legitimate function of the home in developing the reading 
ability of children? 

13. What is the value of dramatization as a check upon the silent reading 
of the primary grades? Are there any types of children for whom such work 
might not prove to be valuable? 

14. What arguments can you give against the abandonment of the regu- 
lar reading period in the grades above the primary, and substituting for it 
the teaching of reading as a phase of other subjects, such as history and 
geography? Will your arguments apply to all children equally well? 

15. How much time should be given to the teaching of appreciation? 
Compare the time devoted to this type of work with the time given to other 
kinds of work in reading instruction. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Anderson, C. J. and Merton E., Remedial Work in Reading. El. Sch. 

Jl., 1920, 20, 685-701, 772-791; 21, 336-348. 

2. Bobbit, F., Reading in the Elementary Schools of Indianapolis, V and 

VI; The Reading Materials. Elem. Sch. Jl., 1919, 19, 665-688, 
741-761. 

3. Briggs, T. H., and Coffman, L. D., Reading in Public Schools. Chicago, 

Row Peterson & Co., 191 1. Pp. 332. 

4. Carson, H., The Voice and Spiritual Education. New York, The Mac- 

millan Co., 1914. Pp. 198. 

5. Clark, S. H., How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools. Chicago, 

Scott, Foresman & Co., 1899. Pp. 295. 

6. Farnham. G. L., The Sentence Method of Reading. Syracuse, N. Y., 

C. W. Bardeen, 1909. Pp. ix + 55. 

7. Gray, W. S., Problems of Methods in Reading. Eighteenth year book of 

the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II, pp. 26-51. 
Bloomington, Illinois. The Public School Publishing Co., 1919. Pp. 
123. 

8. Gray, C. T., Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and 

Laboratory Experiments. (Supp. Educ. Monog. No. 5.) Chicago, 
The University of Chicago Press, 191 7. Pp. xiv +196. 

9. Gray, W. S., Diagnostic and Remedial Steps in Reading. //. Educ. Res., 

1921, 4, 1-15. 

10. Hawley, W. S., The Effect of Clear Objectives on the Teaching of Read- 

ing. //. Educ. Res., 1921, 3, 254-260. 

11. Horn, E., A Constructive Program in Silent Reading. Jl. Educ. Res., 

1921, 3, 336-344- 

12. Jenkins, F., Reading in the Primary Grades. Chicago, Houghton, Mifflin 

Co., 1915. Pp. xi 4- 125. 

13. Judd, C. H., Reading: Its Nature and Development. (Supp. Educ, 

Monog. 2, No. I.) Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1918. 
Pp. xiv + 192. 

14. Klapper, Teaching Children to Read. Chicago, D. Appleton & Co., 

1915. Pp. viii -f 242. 

15. Lleuelyn, E. J., Reading in the Mount Vernon, Indiana, City Schools, 

Elem. Sch. Jl., 191 6, 123-127. 

410 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 411 

i6. Lloyd, S. M., and Gray, C. T., Reading in a Texas City. Diagnosis and 
Remedy. Austin, Texas, University of Texas Bulletin, No. 1853, 
1920. Pp. 107. 

17. Ljonan, R. L., Teaching Assimilative Reading. Sch. Rev., 1920, 28, 

600-610. 

18. National Society for the Study of Education. Twentieth Yearbook, Part 

II. Bloomington, 111., Pub. Sch. Pub. Co., 1921. Pp. 173. 

19. Oberholtzer, E. E., Testing the Efficiency of Reading in the Grades. 

Elem. Sch. Jl., 1915, 313-322. 

20. O'Brien, J. A., Silent Reading. New York, The Macmillan Co., 192 1, 

Pp. xvii + 286. 

21. O'Hern, J. P., Development of a Chart for Attainment in Reading. Jl. 

Educ. Res., 1921, 3, 180-194, 

22. Peters, C. C, The Influence of Speed Drills upon Rate and Effectiveness 

of Silent Reading. //. Ed. Psy., 191 7, 8, 350-366. 

23. Pressey, L. W., and Pressey, S. F., A Critical Study of the Concept of 

Silent Reading. Jl. Ed. Psy., 1921, 12, 25-31. 

24. Smith, Bertha M., Correlation of Ability in Reading with the General 

Grades in H. S. Sch. Rev., 1919, 27, 493-511. 

25. Summers, M., The Summers Readers^ Manual. New York, Frank D. 

Beattys & Co., 1908. Pp. 113. 

26. Stone, C. R., Some Illustrative Silent-Reading Lessons. El. Sch. J., 

1920, 21, 26-33. 

27. Stone, R. E., Duplication of Reading Material in fifteen Second-Grade 

Readers. El. Sch. Jl., 1920, 20, 702-710. 

28. Turner, NeUie E., Teaching to Read. Chicago, American Book Co., 

1915. Pp. viii + 520. 

29. Uhl, W. L., The Use of the Results of Reading Tests as a Basis for 

Planning Remedial Work. Elem. Sch. Jl., 1916, 17, 266-275. 

30. Zirbes, Laura, Diagnostic Measurement as a Basis for Procedure. Elem. 

Sch. JL, 1918, 18, 505-552. 

Additional References 

1. Arnold, S. L., Reading; How to Teach It. Boston, Silver, Burdett & 

Co., 1899. Pp. 288. 

2. Bassett, L. E., A Handbook of Oral Reading. Boston, Houghton, 

Mifflin Co., 1917. Pp. vii -(- 353. 

3. Branson, E. C, Reading Methods. Chicago, D. C. Heath & Co., 1909. 

Pp- 39- 

4. Chubb, P., The Teaching of English, Chapters 9 and 10. Chicago, The 

Macmillan Co., 1907. Pp. xxi + 411. 



412 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

5. Gill, E. J., Methods of Teaching Reading. //. of Exp. Fed., 191 2, I, 

243-248. 

6. Gesell, A. L. and Gesell, B. C., The Normal Child and Primary Educa- 

tion. Chap. 15. Chicago, Ginn & Co., 1912. Pp. x + 342. 

7. Hall, G. S., HoK' to Teach Reading. Chicago, D. C. Heath & Co., 1S86. 

Pp. 40. 

8. Hall, G. S., Edticational Problems. N. Y. and London, D. Appleton & 

Co'., Vol. n, pp. 397-492. 

9. Hughes, J. S., Teaching to Read. New York, A. S. Barnes & Co., 1909. 

Pp. ix + 124. 

10. Kendall, C. N. and Mirick, G. A., How to Teach the Fundamental 

Subjects, Chapter H. Chicago, Houghton, MifHin Co., 1915. Pp. 
ix + 329. 

11. Laing, M. E., Reading, A Manual for Teachers. Boston, D. C. Heath & 

Co., 1901. Pp. vi + 167. 

12. McMurry, C. A., Special Method in Reading. Bloomington, 111., Public 

School Publishing Co., 1899. Pp. 137. 

13. Norlie, D. M., Principles of Expressive Reading. Boston, Gorham 

Press, 1918. Pp. 190. 

14. O'Shea, M. V., Linguistic Development and Education, Chapters 7, 8, 

and 9. Chicago, The Macmillan Co., 1907. Pp. xviii + 337. 

15. Parker, F. W., Objective Method of Teaching Elementary Reading. 

Ed. Rev., 1S91, 2, 474-476. 

16. Payne, L. W., The Technique of Oral Reading. Tex. Sch. Mag., 1913, 

16, pp. 9-11. 

17. Spaulding, F. E. and Bryce, C. T., Learning to Read. New York, 

Newson & Co., 1918. Pp. 243. 
iS. Tajdor, J. S., Principles aiul Methods of Teaching Reading. Chicago, 
The Macmillan Co., 1912. Pp. xv + 238. 

19. • The Teaching of Reading. State of New Jersey, Department of 

Public Instruction, Trenton, 1914. Pp. 96. 

20. SuzzaUo, H., Potent Factors in Oral Reading. N. E. A. Report, 1907. 

Pp. 478-497- 



APPENDIX A 

In the pages which precede it has been necessary to introduce certain 
statistical terms. Instead of taking time for the consideration of these terms 
at the various places where they were used, it was thought advisable to 
confine discussions of this tj^je to an appendix. The treatment will neces- 
sarily be brief and wUl be entirely in terms of reading. 

Methods of Organizing Data 

The methods by means of which certain problems in reading are dealt 
with involve results from large numbers of children. In order that data 
which are collected in this manner may be more easily interpreted, it is 
necessary for such results to be organized into some compact form. In other 
words, the scores made upon reading tests have little meaning as long as 
they appear as individual results. In order that they may be comprehended, 
they must be related to one another or they must be systematized. Two 
methods for organizing material of this type are most often used. These 
are tables and graphs. 

Tables. A simple form of table was made use of on page 66. In this 
table there are three parts. First, certain scores with respect to reading 
ability are listed in a definite order. Second, the various school grades are 
set down. Third, the number of pupils who made each score when the test 
was given is recorded. Other tables which have been used are much more 
complex than this one because they include many types of data rather than 
only three. The advantages of attempting to deal with scores in this form 
rather than as they appear on the test sheets are very apparent. 

Graphs. Data of the type just discussed may also be organized in the form 
of a graph. One type of graph was used on page 65. Such a curve sets forth 
certain scores with respect to comprehension, as indicated on the base Hne, 
and also shows the number of pupils who have made each score. This num- 
ber is indicated by the height of the rectangular column. Such a method is 
preferable in that it indicates the number of subjects graphically. For 
many readers this is more impressive than the numerical values given in 
tables. 

The form of graph which has just been referred to is usually spoken of as 
the distribution curve. If it has the form of the one shown on page 419, 
it is spoken of as a normal distribution curve. The theory of this curve in- 

413 



414 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

volves some very intricate mathematics, and serves as a basis for much of 
the procedure in mental measurements. 

Measures of Central Tendency 

After a number of scores or measures have been arranged in the form 
of a distribution curve, they can be dealt with further by determining the 
central tendency of the resulting graph. The determination of the central 
tendency for a distribution chart requires that there be found the score or 
measure about which all the scores or measures seem to cluster or group 
themselves. Three measures for such a clustering or grouping of scores 
are usually given. These are the median, the arithmetic mean, and the 
mode. 

The Median. If the median is found for a distribution curve, that point 
on the scale above which and belo\y which an equal number of measures 
occurs must be determined. A simple case in which the median is easily 
found may be seen in Diagram XI. In this diagram the hypothetical scale 

Diagram XI 
Showing the Meaning of the Term Median 



Scale 



extends from i to 1 1 and one person is assumed as making each score rep- 
resented in the scale. In this case the median comes at six, because there 
are five persons who make a lower score than six and five who make a higher 
score than six. The problem would be a little less simple if the hypothetical 
number of persons had been an even number rather than an odd. To illus- 
trate : If the number had been ten instead of eleven, the median score would 
not appear at any of the points indicated in the scale but might be considered 
as being at 5.5. In this case, it is clear that no person would make the exact 
median score. A method for dealing with a much more complex situation 
has been devised by Monroe as one phase of the scoring of his silent reading 
test. This is shown in Diagram XII. 



APPENDIX 



415 



Diagram XII 

Showing Methods by which the Median Score may be obtained for the Monroe 
Silent Reading Test by Monroe 



Rate Score 



Interval 



Above 1 60 

151 to 160 

141 to 150 

131 to 140 

121 to 130 

116 to 120 

III to 115 

106 to no 

loi to 105 

96 to 100 

91 to 95 

86 to 90 

81 to 85 

76 to 80 

71 to 75 

66 to 70 

61 to 65 

56 to 60 

SI to 55 

46 to 50 

41 to 45 

36 to 40 

31 to 35 

26 to 30 

21 to 25 

16 to 20 

Below 15 



Total 



Median 



Number 

of 
Pupils 



Comprehension 
Score 



Interval 



80 & above 
70 to 79 . 9 
60 to 69 . 9 
SO to 59.9 
45 to 49.9 
40 to 44 
35 to 39 
30 to 34 
27 to 29 
24 to 26 

21 to 23 

18 to 20 
15 to 17 
13 to 14 

II to 12 

9 to 10 
7 to 8 
5 to 6 
4 to 4 
3 to 
2 to 
I to 
o to 



9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
3-9 
9 
9 
9 



Total 



Median 



Number 

of 

Pupils 



Instructions for Making the Distribution 
of Pupils^ Scores, and for Finding the 
Median Score. 

1. The teacher must be careful that 
her papers are grouped correctly by 
classes. If she has but one grade of 
pupils, say 5th grade, or but two divi- 
sions of one grade, say 5th A and sth 
B, then her papers are all grouped to- 
gether and but one "distribution" 
made. If, however, she has parts of 
two or more grades, say part 5th and 
part 6th, she must make two or more 
piles of papers, one for each grade. 

2. Arrange the children's papers for 
any class group in order of the compre- 
hension scores, the lowest score on top. 

3. To make the distribution called 
for, count the number of papers whose 
scores fall within the successive groups 
listed. For instance, if the lowest score 
is 3.5, the next lowest 5.7, the next 7.1, 
7.8, 8.3, and so on, you will put " i " in 
the group marked "between 3 and 3.g"; 
"2" in the group marked "between 
,5 and 6.9," "3" in the group marked 
"between 7 and 8.9," and so on until 
the whole number of scores are recorded. 
The sum of these numbers must equal 
the number of children taking the test. 

4. The median score is the score on 
the middle paper in the pile of papers 
arranged according to size of scores. If 
there are 35 papers, the median score 
is the score on the i8th paper. If there 
are 36 papers, the median score is half 
way between the score on the i8th 
paper and the score on the 19th paper. 

5. Repeat 2, 3 and 4, for the rate 
scores. 



416 DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

The Arithmetic Mean. This term is often spoken of as the average. It 
may be defined as the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. 
A simple problem such as that seen in Table XXVI will illustrate this general 
statement. Twelve children made the scores listed in this table on the 

Table XXVI 

Showing One Type of Calculation ivhich may be used in finding the Arithmetic 

Mean 
Pupil Score for rate 

I • 31 

2 •••44 

3 54 

4 59 

5 67 

6 76 

7 • 76 

8 87 

9 • 98 

10 108 

II 118 

12 127 

Sum 945 

Average .945 4- 12 = 78.7 

Monroe silent reading test. The method by which the average is found is 
very simple and needs no discussion. 

The Mode. After a number of scores are arranged in the form of a dis- 
tribution curve, the mode is said to be that point on the scale which desig- 
nates the score made by the greatest number of subjects. In Diagram X 
(page 105) the mode is at that point on the base line indicated by (2.1 — 3.0). 
In discussing Diagram VI Brown speaks of it as a curve with five modes. 

It should be understood that the determination of any one of the three 
measures of central tendency often requires methods which are more involved 
and more refined than those set forth at this time. 



Measures op Variability 

Only one measure of variability has been used in the discus- 
sions which precede. This is the average or mean variation. It 
may be defined as the average of the variations which a series of 



APPENDIX 417 

measures makes with respect to their average. This may be 
illustrated by a simple problem such as that seen in Table XXVII. 

Table XXVII 

Showing one type of Calculation which may be used in finding the 
Mean Variation 

Pupil Score Variation from 

the Average 

1 31 24.1 

2 44 1 1 . 1 

3 54 I.I 

4 59 3-9 

5 67 II. 9 

6 76 20 . 9 

Average 55.1 Mean Variation .12.1 

The column to the left indicates that the scores of six pupils for 
a silent reading test are being used. The middle column in- 
dicates the scores made upon this test by this group of pupils. 
The average of these scores is 55.1. In the column to the right 
the variation of each of the measures with respect to the average 
is given. The algebraic sign of these variations is not taken into 
consideration. The average of these variations is 12.1, which, 
according to the definition above, is the average or mean 
variation. 

Measures of Relations 

Another important element which enters into the treatment 
of data obtained by reading tests or experiments is the de- 
termination of the relations that exist between the various pro- 
cesses which enter into the reading activity. To illustrate: It 
is important to know the relation which exists between rate of 
reading and comprehension of reading, or between the span of 
perception and the rate of reading. The relation which exists 
between rate and comprehension, as indicated by the scores 
made upon the Monroe silent reading test, is shown graphically 
for ninety fourth grade children in Diagram XIII, 



■ilS DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 



It will be noted that one of the axes represents the scores in rate and the 
other the scores in comprehension. Each dot represents a pupil. If there 
was a perfect relation between these two elements in the reading of this 
group of children, each dot would appear on the line OX. By a perfect 
relation is meant that a change in one factor is accompanied by a correspond- 
ing change in the other. \'arious formulae are available by means of which 
such relations as that noted above may be expressed numerically. Such 
formulae will be found in the references given at the end of the Appendix. 

Diagram XIII 
SJuni'iiig Relation bchccat Rale of Rca<iiiig and Coinprchcnsiou in Reading 

C ":' 20 3c -^ S'c- ec ■ 7^ SO £V /Vt7 //•J' rz^ /3a /^a '^3E> ASb 



2 

W 



6j 






Methods of Deteriuxixg Relati\"e DiFPicrLTiES of Re.adixg Passages 

The determination of the relative difficulty of passages or of paragraphs 
used in tests has been mentioned as an important detail in the selection of a 
well-devised test. This point has been worked out minutely by Gray, and 
a brief discussion of his procedure may be given at this time. The method 
used by him is tj'pical; hence tlie same point in regard to other tests need 
not be discussed. There are two methods which have been employed in the 
making of scales. These plans have been spoken of by Rugg and Clark in 
their work upon Algebra as tlie "teacher-judgment" method and the "pro- 
portion-of-pupil-solving" method, or, in the case of reading, the "proportion- 
of-pupil-reading"' method. In devising a test for reading, the first method 
would require that a series of passages be submitted to judges who would 
pass upon their relative ditficulty. Gray, who used this device in some 
preliminary work, concludes that unless a large number of very competent 
judges is employed the results are not rehable. 



APPENDIX 419 

The second method requires that the different passages be read by a 
group of children and that the relative difficulty be determined by the results 
thus obtained. To understand Gray's method of dealing with this problem 
it is necessary to assume a series of passages to be read by a number of chil- 
dren. Let the number of children be two hundred. It may also be assumed 
that these passages are sufficiently difficult, so that not all of this group of 
children will make a score of loo on a scale which runs from o to loo, and 
that no passage is so difficult but that it can be read by a small number of 
the pupils. To satisfy these conditions, let it be assumed further that three 
per cent failed to read the easy selection. Since the second paragraph is 
more difficult than the first, ten per cent of the pupils may be assumed as 
failing to read it. It might also be true that a still more difficult paragraph 
would cause fifty per cent of the children to fail, and that the most difficult 
selection would be read by only three per cent of the group. Such facts 
are expressed in Diagram XIV. 

Diagram XIV 
Normal Distribution Curve 




The area of this curve may be thought of as representing the two hundred 
subjects assumed in the beginning of the discussion. Then, if three per cent 
failed on the easy selection, and ninety-seven per cent read it successfully 
the position of this selection might be thought of as being at the point K, 
which is so located that three per cent of the area of the curve is to the left 
of it and ninety-seven per cent of the area is to the right. The point H is 
located at the point where fifty per cent of the area is to the left and fifty 
per cent to the right, whereas M is located so that ninety-seven per cent of 
the area is to the left and three per cent to the right of it. 

It will be seen from this that if these various points for the several para- 
graphs or selections can be located accurately in terms of some constant unit, 
the relative difficulty of the different paragraphs can be expressed in terms of ' 
the unit. Such a unit is to be found in the distance CD. If the two lines 
XY and PQ are drawn at such a distance from MN that they include one- 
half the area of the curve, then the distance CD is spoken of as the probable 
error {PE). This may be given a constant value. When this is done, the 
science of statistics has methods by which the location of the points K, 11, 
and M can be determined in terms of this probable error. It is evident that 



420 . DEFICIENCIES IN READING ABILITY 

a series of selections taken at random is not likely to have equal steps between 
them when this procedure is followed; and if the variations in the steps are 
too great, certain selections may have to be eliminated and others substi- 
tuted. 

Another point with respect to the standardizing of passages 
is that the same selection will have different scale values for the 
different school grades, and as a result the steps between these 
selections will vary from grade to grade. To get final values for 
the steps between the selections which he used, Gray employed 
the average step for each paragraph derived from the results 
procured from the various school grades. If such methods are 
used and the different selections in a test are so scaled, the 
differences in reading ability as found between different pupils 
or between different grades have a much more definite meaning 
than when the scale has not been so constructed. 

References 

Rugg, H. O., Statistical Methods Applied to Education. Chicago, Hough- 
ton, MifBin Co., 1917. Pp. xviii + 410. 

Thorndike, E. L., An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social 
Measurements. New York, The Science Press, 1904. Pp. xii + 212. 

King, W. I., The Elements of Statistical Method. New York, The Mac- 
millan Company, 191 2. Pp. xvi + 250. 

Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Part I: Simpler 
Processes. Baltimore, Warwick and York, 1914. Pp. xvi + 365. 

Yule, G. O., An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. London, C. 
Griffin & Co., 1917. Pp. xv + 281. 



■■ "^..Jjp 



T 



0" 






*i 













& 




"> 



'%<^^- 



A-^' 













r-. • ■ ^-Kss-^ ft or ^ 



-^A > 





